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THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA 

DEPARTMENT OF 

POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGY 






COMPARATIVE FEDERAL 
INSTITUTIONS 

An Analytical Reference Syllabus 



BY 



GEORGE ELLIOTT HOWARD, Ph. D. 

Head Professor of Political Science and Sociology 



PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 
1907 






Gift 
Tb» UtiJ-vprsUy 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



Pages 
Chapter I. Federal Institutions in Greece, Italy, and Western 

Europe 5-20 

I. Cbaracter of the Course 5-6 

II. Characteristics and General Principles of Federal Gov- 
ernment 6-8 

III. Characteristics and General Principles, Continued. 

Freeman's Views 9 

IV. Federal Institutions in Greece: the Lesser Leagues 10-12 

V. Origin and Constitution of the Achaean League 12-14 

VI. Historical Development of the Achaean League 14-17 

VII. Federal Institutions in Italy and Western Europe 17-20 

Chapter II. Origin and Character of the Federal Constitution 

OF THE United States 21-48 

VIII. The "United Colonies of New England" 21-24 

IX. Franklin's Plan of Union, 1754 24-26 

X. Federal Sentiment, 1763-1775 26-27 

XI. Character of the Confederation, 1781-1789 27-30 

XII. Origin of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 30-34 

XIII. The Federal Convention: Principal Plans and Compro- 
mises 34-37 

XIV. The Federal Convention: Completion and Ratification 

of the Constitution 37-41 

XV. Sources and Character of the Constitution 41-46 

XVI. John Marshall and the Interpretation of the Constitu- 
tion 46-48 

Chapter III. Origin and Character of the Federal Constitution 

OF Switzerland , 49-82 

XVII. Preliminaries of Swiss Federal History 49-51 

XVIII. The League of Three Cantons 52-53 

XIX. The League of Eight Cantons 53-56 

XX. Development of the League of Eight Cantons 56-59 

XXI. The League of Thirteen Cantons 59-62 

XXII. From the Helvetic Revolution to 1848 62-65 

XXIII. General Character of the Swiss Constitution 65-66 

XXIV. The Federal Assembly 67-68 

XXV. The Federal Council 69-70 

XXVI. The Federal Chancery and the Federal Tribunal 70-71 

(3) 



4 ANALYTICAL INDEX. 

Pages 

XXVII. Amendments and Miscellaneous 72-75 

XXVIII. State and Local Government 75-77 

XXIX. Swiss Party Government 77-79 

XXX. The Referendum and Initiative 79-82 

Chapter IV. Origin and Character of the Federal Constitu- 
tion OF the Dominion of Canada 83-104 

XXXI. Literature Available for the Course 83-86 

XXXII. Struggle for Free Institutions, 1763-1837 86-89 

XXXIII. The Rebellion of 1837 and Lord Durham's Re- 

port 89-92 

XXXIV. Origin of the Federal Constitution 92-94 

XXXV. General Character of the Constitution 94-95 

XXXVI. The Dominion Parliament 96-99 

XXXVII. The Executive 99-100 

XXXVIII. The Canadian Judicial System 100-102 

XXXIX. The Provincial and Local Governments 102-104 

Chapter V. Origin and. Character of the Federal Constitu- 
tion OF THE Australian Commonvs^ealth 105-127 

XL. Literature Available for the Course 105-108 

XLI. Discovery, Exploration, and Colonization of Aus- 
tralia 108-109 

XLII. Founding of the Australian Colonies 109-111 

XLIII. The Movement for Federation, 1846-1890 111-113 

XLIV. The Defence Problem and the Conference of 1890. .113-114 
XLV. The National Australasian Convention and the 

Constitution of 1891 .114-116 

XLVI. Triumph of the Federal Movement 116-119 

XLVII. General Character of the Federal Constitution 119-120 

XLVIII. Tlie Parliament of the Commonwealth 120-124 

XLIX. The Executive 124-125 

L. Judicature, Finance, Miscellaneous 125-127 

Chapter VI. Select References for German and Latin Fed- 
eral Institutions , 128-133 

LI. Literature for Study of the German Empire 128-131 

LII. Literature for Study of Mexico and Argentina 131-133 



A COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF FEDERAL 
INSTITUTIONS. 



CHAPTER I. 



INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS IN 
GREECE, ITALY, AND "WESTERN EUROPE. 



Section I. Character op the Course. 

I. Nature and Scope of Institutional History. 

1. What is an institution? 

2. What is a constitution? Relation of constitutional 

history to general institutional history? To culture- 
history ? 

3. Scientific value of the study of institutions. 

II. Nature and Scope of Federal Institutions. 

1. Definition for historical purposes. 

2. Practical and scientific value of the study of federal 

institutions. 

3. Examples of federal governments. 

III. The Federal Governments Treated in this Course. 

1. The Achaean League: with a comparative view of the 

Aetolian League and the lesser examples of federal 
unions in Greece and Italy. 

2. The United States: origin and constitution. 

3. Switzerland. 

4. Canada. 

5. Australia. 

6. The German Empire. 

7. The Latin American federal governments (a sum- 

mary) . 

IV. Method of Study and Treatment. 

V. Literature (see the "Special Card Catalogue"). 

1. Texts and maps. 

(5) 



b FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2. Sources. 

3. Secondary authorities. 

REFERENCES. 

Freman, Federal Government, 1-6; Hart, Federal Government, 1 ff. 
Jellinek, StaatenverMndungen, 3-16. 



Section II. Characteristics and General Principles ob^ 
Federal Government as Compared with Other Forms 
OF Political Organization; 

I, The Problem of Sovereignty (Hart, 11-12; Freeman, 6-13; 
Jellinek, ^taatenverMndun-gen, 3-58, passim; idem, Gesetz 
und Verordnung; Burgess, Political Science^ I, 52 ff. ; idem, 
in Pol Sc. Quart., Ill (1888), 334 ff . ; Willoughby, Nature 
of the State, chaps, ix, x, xi, 181-308; Crane and Moses, 
Politics, 33-46; Von Hoist, Constitutional History, I, 5 ff. ; 
Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, 3-4; Story, Com- 
mentaries, I, sees. 207-208; Bluntschli, Theory of the State, 
492-512; idem, "Sovereignty," in Lalor, Cyclopedia, III, 
763-67; Austin, Jurisprudence, I, 220 fif. ; Giddings, "Sover- 
eignty and Government," in Pol. Sc. Quart., XXI, 1-28; 
Dunning, "Bodin on Sovereignty," in Pol. 8c. Quart., XI, 
82-104; Dewey, "Austin's Theory of Sovereignty," In Pol. 
So. Quart., IX, 31-52; Piatt, "State, Sovereign, Govern- 
ment," in Pol. So. Quart., X, 292-323; Ritchie, in Annals 
of Am. Academy (1891), I, 385-411; Wheaton, International 
Laio, Part I, chap, ii ; Twiss, International Law, sees. 12-23 ; 
Calvo, Droit International, I, 168 ff. ; Bliss, Of Sovereignty 
(1885) ; Schulze, Lehrl)uch, I, sees. 15-17; xirndt. Stoats- 
recht, 38 ff., 69, 41; Brie, Theorie der StaatenverMndungen, 
21, passim). 

1. Theories of sovereignty. 
a. Bodin's theory. 
J). Hobbes's theory. 

c. Rousseau's theory. 

d. Bluntschli's theory. 

e. Jellinek's theor}^ 

f. Burgess's theory. 

g. Willoughby's theory. 
h. Other theories. 



GREECE AND WESTERN EUROPE. « 

2. Special questions. 

a. May sovereignty be divided? 

6. May there exist a "dual sovereignty"? (See Tiede- 
man, Unwritten Constitution.) 

c. How or by whom is sovereignty exercised? 

d. Where is sovereignty located? Is it, for the time 

being, wholly vested in the government? (See 
Willoughby, 205 fif.) 

II. Nature of Federal Government. 

1. Queries as to mode of formation. 

a. Through union of independent states. 

&. Through subdivision of a centralized state. 

2. Leading theories. 

a. The compact or treaty theory (Calhoun, Works, 

I, 190; Vou Hoist, I, chap. i). 
&. The constitution theory, 
c. The social or historical theory (as applied to the 

United States). 

3. Is federal government always the result of com- 

promise ? 

4. Is a federal government necessarily representative? 

III. Forms of the State (Aristotle, Politics, III, 4, 5; Bur- 
gess, Political Science, I, 68-82; Bluntschli, Theory of the 
State, 329 fe.; Willoughby, Nature of the State, 351-79). 

1. Aristotle's theory. 

2. Burgess's theory. 

3. Willoughby's theory. 

4. Other theories. 

IV. Classification of Combinations of States. 

1. Non-federal combinations (Hart, 12-16; Jellinek, 63- 
171, 197-253). 
a. Subordinate states. 

1) Protectorates and "spheres of influence." 

2) Colonies and dependencies (Woolsey, Polit- 

ical Science, II, 146-59; Burgess, I, 68-82; 
Freeman, 23-30; Fiske, American Political 
Ideas, 73-85; Bluntschli, 485 fie.; Jellinek, 
63-8, 113-116; Twiss, sees. 24-41; Ashjey, 
American Federal State, 7 ff. ; Willoughby, 
chap. x). 



O FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

J). Conjunctive unions (see literature in Hart, 14, 
n. 3). 

1) The Personalunion (Jellinek, 82-8; Bluntschli, 

487). 

2) The Realunion: Norway- Sweden, Austria- 

Hungary, etc. (Jellinek, 197-253; Juraschek, 
Personal- und Bealumon, 1878). 
c. Associations of states. 

1) Treaty. 

2) Alliance. 

3) League. 

4) The system of states or balance of powers. 

5) The community or family of nations. 

2. Federal combinations (Hart, 19-21; Freeman, 8-13; 
Willoughby, The State, chap, x; idem, Am. 
Const. System, chap, i; Westerkamp, Staaten- 
hund imd Bundesstaat; Ashley, 7 ff. ; Jellinek, 
172-97, 253 fie.; Wheaton, Part I, chap, ii; Twiss, 
sees. 37, 54; Bluntschli, 487; Woolsey, II, 147-8, 
166-170; Wharton, Commentaries, sec. 137). 

a. The Staatenstaat : question as to its proper classi- 
fication ? Examples, the Holy Roman Empire, the 
fief, Turkey, etc. 

6. The Staatenbund or confederation : action on state 
governments; example, the United States before 
1789. Question of two varieties? (Jellinek, 184 
fif.). 

G. The Bundesstaat or federal union: example, the 
United States since 1789. 

V. Political Conditions of Federal Government (Hart, 22-26, 
180, bibliography). 

1. How formed : union or segregation. 

2. Causes favoring the formation. 

3. Advantages and disadvantages. 

4. May be monarchical or republican. 

REFERENCES. 
Freeman, Federal Government, chap, ii, in part; Hart, Federal Gov- 
ernment, chap, i; Brie, Theorie, 52 ff.; Jellinek, Staatenverdindungen, 
as cited; Federalist, Nos. 9, 21, 39; Dicey, Law and the Constitution, 
131-152; Burgess, I, 142-154, 184-252; Mill, Representative Government, 
301; Ashley, 197 ff.; Bernard, Lectures on the American War (1861), 
68-72; and the references in the syllabus and in Hart. 



GREECE AND WESTERN EUROPE. 9 

Section III, Characteristics and General Principles of 
Federal Government (continued) : Freeman's Views. 

I. Characteristics of Federal Government in Greece (Free- 
man, 15 flf.). 

1. Character of the city-state (Bluntschli, Theory of the 

State, 34 fif.). 
a. Municipal character. 
&. Either democratic or aristocratic: the tyranny, 

definition? 

c. Condition of the dependent city as compared with 

a member of a federation or with a colony. 

d. Slight means of incorporation; case of Athens; of 

Italian cities; of Swiss cantons; of Rome; town 
autonomy in mediaeval Europe, how modified by 
the empire? 

e. Varieties of internal constitution and of external 

and internal relations. 

f. Advantages of the city-state (Freeman, 29-39). 

g. Disadvantages (Freeman, 39-49). 

2. System of large states compared with that of small 

states. 
a. Definition of large states (Freeman, 49-57). 
6. Position of the capital. 

c. Representative character of the assembly; excep- 

tions: the Napoleonic universal suffrage; the 
American president. 

d. General view: advantages and disadvantages 

(Freeman, 57-68). 

II. Theory of Federal Government as a Compromise between 
Small and Large States (Freeman, 13-14, 69-83). 

1. Avoids the extreme evils and advantages of small 

states. 

2. Can there be a federal monarchy ? . 

3. As to territory. 

4. As to political education. 

5. The component state as compared with the kingdom 

or the consolidated republic. 

III. General Results of Modern Federalism (Freeman, 85-94). 

1. In the United States: alleged ease of secession. 

2. In Switzerland. 

See Freeman, Federal Government, chap. ii. 



10 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Section IV. Federal Institutions in Greece: The Lesser 

Leagues. 

I. The Amphiktyonies. 

1. The Amphiktyonic Council at Delphi (Grote, Index; 

Thirlwall, chap. 61, passim; Freeman, chap, iii; 

Smith, Dictionary of Antiquities; Sainte Croix, 

Anciens Gouvernemens Federatifs). 
a. Error in supposing it to be a federal government. 
6. It was a religious, not a political body; yet not a 

clerical body. 

c. A union of tribes not of cities; votes not fairly 

distributed. 

d. Use of representation. 

e. Examples of the activity of the council. 

2. Many lesser Amphiktyonies in Hellas. 

II. The Phokian League. 

1. Uncertain date of origin. 

2. Why the earlier leagues arose in backward tribes? 

3. Phokion, the capitol : why a capital city not chosen? 

III. The Akarnanian League. 

1. Evidence of its existence, 431-169 B. C. 

2. Places of meeting: Olpai, Stratos, Leukas, Thourion. 

3. Constitution. 

a. Officers: A general (strategos) or president; priest 
of the Aktian Apollo; secretary of state; other 
magistrates. 

&. Senate and assembly. 

c. Control of diplomatic relations; a non-exclusive 
federal coinage. 

IV. The Epeirot League (229 B. C). 

1. Early republican development of Chaonia and Thes- 

protis. 

2. Monarchical constitution of Molossis. 

3. Evidence of the existence of a federation after 229 

B. C. : federal ambassadors, coinage, and generals. 

V. The Boeotian League (Freeman, 120-144). 

1. Its lesson for the student of federal institutions. 

a. Dangerous preponderance of the capital, Thebes. 
5. Why Boeotia better suited for a Synoikismos or 
consolidate city-state, like Athens. 



GREECE AND WESTERN EUROPE. 11 

2. History. 

a. First period, 776-387 B. C. 

1) Existence of both Amphiktyony and federal 

league. 

2) Constitution: subordinate districts; 11 (or 

13) boeotarchs; four senates; archon or 
nominal chief. 

3) Oppression of the other towns by Thebes; les- 

son from the treatment of Tlataia (519 B. 
C), Thespia, and Orchomenos. 

4) Peace of Antalkidas, 387 B. C. : dissolution 

of the League by Sparta. 
6. Second period, 387-335 B. C. 

1) Career of Pelopidas, 379-364. 

2) Career of Epameinondas, 379-362: frees 

Boeotia at Leuktra, 369 B. C. 

3) Federal league revived; treatment of the 

towns. 

4) Philip of Macedonia defeats Thebans and 

Athenians at Chaironeia, 338 B. C; Thebes 
destroyed, 335 B. C. 
c. Third period, 335-172 B. C. 

1) Thebes restored by Kassander, 316 B. C. 

2) The League restored. 

3) The new constitution (Freeman, 143). 

VI. Various Attempts at Federal Systems (Freeman, 145- 
154). 

VII. The Arkadian League (370 B. C). 

1. League founded by Lykomedes of Mantineia; work of 

Epameinondas. 

2. Foundation of the capital, Megalopolis, 370 B. C. 

3. Constitution. 

VIII. The Lykian League, 168 B. C, to Claudius, 41-54 A. D. 

1. The Lykians not a Greek people. 

2. Great importance of the federal constitution. 

a. Apportionment of votes in the assembly. 
6. Details of the constitution given by Strabo (XIV, 
3). 

REFERENCES. 
Freeman, Federal Government, chaps, iii-iv; Hart, 27-31, bibliog- 
raphies; Grote, History of Greece, Index at various names; Thirlwall, 



12 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

History of Greece, Vol. II; Freeman, in Essays, 1st series, 228-55; 
Woolsey, Political Science, II, 175-194; May, Democracy in Europe, I, 
48-9, 129-31; Mann, Republics, 43-9, 77-8, 118-29, Fiske, American Po- 
litical Ideas, 59, 75-77. For general readings on Greek history, see 
Bury, History of Greece; Cox, Athenian Empire; Sankey, Spartan and 
TTiehan Supremacies; Curteis, Macedonian Empire (Epochs series); 
and other short manuals. For more extended study, see the works 
of Sainte-Croix, Tittmann, Biirgel, and Kortum. 

Freeman's foot-notes are a guide to Strabo, Pausatiias, Xenophon, 
Thucydides, Livy, Polybios, Aristotle, and other sources. 



Section V. Origin and Constitution of the Achaean 
League, 281-146 B. C. 

I. Character of the Later History of Greece (Freeman, 170- 
184) . 

1. The literature; Polybios and his age; Thirlwall; Free- 

man; Niebuhr; Droysen. 

2. Comparison with earlier period; marked by the rise 

of federal institutions. 

3. Eivalry of Achaea and the Antigonids of Macedonia; 

Hellenic patriotism of the Achaean statesmen. 

II. Early History of Achaea; the Old League of 12 Cities 
(Freeman, 185-191) ; dissolved, 288, by Antigonos Gonatas. 

III. Formation of the New League, 280, by union of Patrai and 
Dyme; Joined by Tritaia and Pharai. Aigion Joins, 275 
B. C. ; Steady Growth to 251 B. C. 

IV. Character of Markos of Keryneia, the Founder; of Iseas, 
Tyrant of that City; Nature of a Creek Tyranny; the Later 
Tyrants Supported by Macedon Compared with the Earlier. 

V. The Achaean Federal Constitution (Freeman, 197-251; 
Dubois, Les Ligues Molienne et Achieenne; Thirlwall, II, 
374 fif.). 

1. Sources of information. Was the constitution "en- 

acted" as a whole? (Thirlwall, II, 375; Freeman, 
198). 

2. In character the constitution was democratic and 

strictly federal. 
a. The component cities had independent control of 

internal affairs. 
h. Some of the cities had dependent districts, for 

example, Cornith and Megalopolis. 



GREECE AND WESTERN EUROPE. 13 

c. But there was a tendency to assimilate their laws, 
as in American states. 

3. The League was a real government in organism and 

functions; had control of foreign relations. 

4. The Assembly of the League (Ekklesia?). 

a. Primary not representative; all citizens of 30 
years in all states could attend and vote. 

6. In theory, democratic; in practice, aristocratic 
(plutocratic), but not oligarchic: why? 

c. Votes taken by cities, not by heads : this was the 

result of a necessary compromise. 

d. Two regular meetings a year, at Aigion in early 

period. 

e. Government practically had the initiative. 

5. The Senate (Boule). 

a. Composed of groups of representatives from the 
cities; not a committee chosen by the assembly. 

6. The assembly and senate sitting together formed 
one body (synod) : this body was therefore both 
primary and representative (see theory of Du- 
lois, 113 flf.; and Freeman 239-41, 643-45, 651). 

6. Magistrates or ministers. 

a. The strategos (general) or president: elected by 

popular vote; might be citizen of any state. 
6. The ten ministers (damiourgoi). 

1) Chosen, like president, from all the cities; 

an Achaean "caucus" (Freeman, 222). 

2) Formed a cabinet council for president, with 

seats in assembly. 
c. The secretary of state, general of cavalry, and 
under-general. 

7. Financial system : federal taxes were in form of 

requisitions on the states; compare with policy of 
American confederation. 

8. Comparison of Achaean federal constitution with other 

systems. 
a. Great relative importance of the office of strate- 
gos or president; Markos the first to hold 
the office alone (255 B. C). 
1) Comparison of Aratos and Perikles. 



14 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2) Comparison with American president and 

English premier. 

3) Assembly summoned by the general in council. 

4) Why the ministers, not the general, presided 

in the assembly? 

5) Joint action of general and ministers in diplo- 

matic matters. 

6) His great powers in war. 

7) The American and Achaean presidential in- 

terregnums compared. 
6. General comparison of the Achaean League and 
the United States (Freeman, 243-251; Federalist, 
Nos. xvi, xviii, xxviii, xlv, Ixx, and index. 

VI. Constitution of the Aetolian League Compared with that 
of Achaea (Freeman, 252-74). 

REFERENCES. 

Freeman, Federal Government, chaps, v, vi; Hart, Federal Govern- 
ment, 31-3, and bibliographical foot-notes; Woolsey, Political Science, 
II, 180-193; Thirlwall, History of Greece, II, chap. Ixi, 374 ff.; Dubois 
Les Ligues Etolienne et Ach6enne; Federalist, as cited and Index. In 
general, consult Polybios, Plutarch, Strabo, Livy, and the other sources 
as cited in Freeman's foot-notes. Compare Schorn, Geschichte Grie- 
chenlands; Tittmann, Staatsverfaissungen (1812); Kortum, Staats- 
verfassungen (1821); Droysen, Hellenismus; Hermann, LehrbucJi, I, 
sees. 11-14; Gilbert, Handiuch, I, 389-417, II, 14, 21-31, 33, 47-57, 
104-123, 184, 404-419; Busolt, in Miiller's Handbuch, IV, 4 (1887), sees. 
54-71, 233-48; Schomann, Antiquities, 294-539. 

Section VI. Historical Development op the Achaean 
League, 281-146 B. C. (Freeman, chaps, vii-ix, 275-556). 

I. From the Foundation of the League to the Deliverance of 
Corinth, 281-243 B. C. 

1. General condition of Greece. 

a. Invasion of the Gauls. 

6. War between Pyrrhos of Epeiros and Antigonos 
Gonatas of Macedonia. 

c. State of Sparta; of Athens. 

d. Macedonia and her "tyrants" in the Greek cities. 

2. Markos and the sole generalship, 255 B. C. 

3. Aratos and the annexation of Sikyon, 251 B. C. (Free- 

man, 278-287) . 



GREECE AND WESTERN EUROPE. 



15 



4. Character of Aratos (see Plutarch). 

a. His political ideas : merits and faults of character, 
6. Statesmanship. 

c. Generalship. 

d. Relations with Antigouos, Ptolemy Philadelphos, 

and Kleomenes. 

5. Significant events. 

c. Invasion of Attica bv the League, 243 B, C. 
6. Accession of Corinth, Megara, Troizen, and 
Epidauros, 243 B. C. 

c. Invasion of Attica by the Leag-ue, 243 B. C. 

d. Vain attempt on Argos; morality of Greek tyran- 

nicide. 

e. Illustrations of the character of Greek federalism 

in this period. 

II. From the Deliverance of Corinth to the Annexation of 
Argos, 243-228 B. C. (Freeman, 305-a35). 

1. Agis of Sparta, Aratos, and the Aetolian invasion of 

Peloponnesos, 241 B. C. 

2. Unsuccessful attempts on Athens, Argos, and Peiraieus. 

3. Kleonai Joins the League. 

4. Kynaitha and other Arkadian towns join the League. 

5. Megalopolis (the city of Lydiadas, Lykortas, Polybios, 

and Philopoimen) joins the League, 234 B. C. 

6. Character of Lydiadas; his rivalry with Aratos. 

7. Accession of Argos to the league, 228 B. C. : conduct of 

Lydiadas and Aratos compared. Commanding posi- 
tion of the League. 

III. Aratos and Kleomenes, to the Beginning of Negotiations 
with Macedonia, 227-224 B. C. (Freeman, 335-361). 

1. Condition of Sparta ; reforms of Agis, 241 B. C. ; revolu- 

tion of Kleomenes, 226-225 B. C; relations with the 
League; causes of the war with the League. 

2. Kleomenes gains the Aetolian towns in Arkadia, 228 

B. C. • 

3. Generalship of Aristomachos, 228 B. C. : why Lydiadas 

was not chosen? 

4. Kleomenes defeats Aratos at Mount Lykaion, and 

Aratos surprises Mantineia, 226-225 B. C. : results? 
(Plutarch, Kleomenes, 5; idem, Aratos, 36). 



16 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

5. Defeat of Achaeans at Ladokeia, 226 B. C. : death of 

Lydiadas; cowardice of Aratos; he is censured. 

6. Mantineia revolts to Kleomenes; Kleomenes's victory 

at Hekatombaion, 224 B. C. 

7. Kelative position of Kleomenes and Aratos; the latter 

appeals to Macedonia (compare Plutarch, Aratos. 
38, 41, and Polybios, II, 47, passim) . 

IV. Alliance of Aratos and Antigonos Doson, 223-221 B. C. 

1. The negotiations with Antigonos. 

2. Relations of the two allies with Kleomenes; popularity 

of the latter; his schemes. 

3. Secession of some towns of the League; lesson as to 

federal government. 

4. Antigonos invited by the League; and Akrqkorinthos 

surrendered to him; judgment on the conduct of 
Aratos. ^ 

5. Battle of Sellasia ; defeat and exile of Kleomenes ; death 

of Antigonos, 221 B. C. ; his character. 

V. The League from the Battle of Sellasia to the Peace of 
Epeiros, 221-205 B. C. (Freeman, 389-467). 

1. Rise of Philopoimen. 

2. The Social war, 221-217 B. C. 

3. Revolution at Sparta, 220-219 B. C. 

4. Congress of Korinth, 220 B. C. ; Congress of Naupaktos, 

217 B. C. 

5. Death of Aratos, 213 B. C. 

6. First war of Rome with Macedonia. 

7. Character and statesmanship of Philopoimen. 

8. Peace of Epeiros, 205 B. C. 

VI. Federal Greece from the Peace of Epeiros to the Dissolu- 
tion of the Achaean League, 205-146 B. C. (Freeman, 471- 
556). 

1. The second Macedonian war and the settlement of 

Greece under Flamininus, 205-194 B. C. 
a. Character of Philip of Macedonia. 
6. Alliance of the leagues with Rome. 

2. Work of Philopoimen; his death, 183 B. C. 

3. The Achaean League extended over all Peloponnesos, 

191 B. C. ; its condition and constitution in this 
period. 

4. Main events. 



GREECE AND WESTERN EUROPE. 17 

REFERENCES. 

The chief sources are Plutarch and Polybios; the leading English 
writers are Thirlwall and Freeman. See also the book of Dubois 
above cited. 

Section VII. Federal Institutions in Italy and Western 

Europe. 

A. Ancient Italy. 

I. Conditions Favoring Federation; Cliaracter of the Sources. 

II. League of Etruria (Freeman, 562-565; Hart, 34; Muller, 
Etrusker, I, 131, 136, 350 fif. ; Mommsen, History, Index; 
Livy; Dionysios). 

1. Composed of ''twelve" cities. 

a. Significance of ''twelve" as a political number. 
&. Had the individual states subject towns? 

2. Religious and federal assemblies at the temple of 

Voltumna: was the political league preceded by an 
amphiktyony? (Livy, IV, 23, 25, VI, 2). 

3. No exact knowledge as to the constitution of the league. 

a. Kings are mentioned; the aristocracy of historical 
times probably preceded by royalty. 

&. Looseness of the federation shown by the states 
retaining war powers; but war and peace might 
be declared by the federal goverament. 

III. League of Samnium. 

1. Character of the Samnites; analogy with Aetolians and 

the Swiss. 

2. The federal constitution : absence of detailed informa- 

tion. 
a. Was there a federal president or head? Who was 

the imperator or embratur? (Livy, IX, 1.) 
h. Evidence for at least five divisions (states). 

c. Probably a popular assembly and a senate (Free- 

man, 566, note 1). 

d. There was a Samnite nation; significance of the 

long war with Rome, 340-82, B. C. 

IV. The League of Latium. 

1. Character of the people and the towns; traditional 

history of the founding of the League (Dionysios, IV, 
25, 26; Freeman, 568). 

2. Composed of "thirty" cities. 
2 



18 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

3, Constitution. 

«. Dictator: federal head, at least in time of war 

(Dionysios, V, 74). 
&. Political and religious meetings, survival of the 

Feriae Latinae. 

4. Kelations with Rome: Rome a Latin town, but not a 

mere capital of Latium ; significance of the Latin pro- 
posal for union, 337 B. C. (Livy, VIII, 3-5, 8). The 
League dissolved by Rome, 334 B. C. 

V. Federal Elements in the Roman Commonwealth (Freeman, 
Federal Government, 572-592; idem, Comparative Politics; 
Fiske, American Political Ideas, 11 ff. ; Hart, 35-6). 

1. Roman expansion by "incorporation"; significance of 

the gwasi- federal elements; analogy with Athen- 
ian method of incorporation. 

a. Stages in the process; the thrt^e classes: Romans, 
Latins, Allies (Italians under Roman sway) ; the 
franchise in the provinces; the strife between 
patrician and plebeian. 

6. The process of expansion was not federalism : the 
Roman "alternative" (Freeman, 575-76). 

2. The Social War, 90-89 B. C. : Italy's prst great oppor- 

tunity for union (Freeman, 583 ff., 600; Beesly, 

The Gracchi). 
a. Causes of the struggle; the demand for equal 

citizenship or for independence. 
&. Who were the allies; position of Etruscans and 

Umbrians. 

c. The constitution of the federation. 

1) Corfinium, the capital; renamed Italicum. 

2) Officers. 

3) Federal senate of 500. 

d. Success of the allies: the senate tenders the fran- 

chise; conditions; Samnium and Lucania refuse; 
the other allies accept the oQ'er. 

3. The Civil war, 88-82 B. C. 

a. Causes. 

6. Rivalry of Marius and Sulla. 

c. Battle of the Colline Gate: Sulla victorious: 

Samnium ravaged. 

d. Italy enfranchised. 



GREECE AND WESTERN EUROPE. 19 

B. Western Europe. 

I. The Lombard League, 1164-1183; Renewed, 1228, 1239. 

1. Condition of Italy in the 12th century. 

a. Practically composed of many states: city-states, 

principalities, papal domains. 
6. The empire. 

1) The German kingdom and the election at 

Frankfort. 

2) The Italian kingdom and the coronation at 

Monza or Milan. 

3) The Holy Roman empire and the coronation 

at Rome. 

2. Frederic I, Barbarossa (1152-90). 

a. Character. 

6. Points of dispute between him and the northern 

cities of Italy, 
c. Frederick's first war with the cities, 1154-62 : Milan 

destroyed, 1162. 

3. The League formed, 1164 : Italy's second opportunity 

for union. 

a. The League supported by the eastern emperor, 
Manuel Komnenos, William, King of Sicily, and 
Pope Alexander III. Position of Venice? 

&. Victory of the League, at Legnano, 1176. 

c. Peace of Constans, 1183. 

4. Character of the League. 

a. A mere confederation for a special purpose. 

6. The Rectores Societatis Lomhardiae. 

c. Why true federalism did not develop in Italy? 

5. The renewed League, 1228, 1239, compared with the 

original. 

II. The United Netherlands, 1576-1746. 

1. Origin. 

2. Constitution. 

a. The states general : real federal powers. 

h. The Stadtholderate. 

c. Weakness of the Dutch confederation (Hart, 48). 

III. The Holy Roman Empire, 1526-1806. 

1. A very loose confederation: a Staatenstaat. 

2. Complex organization of courts and diet (Reichstag) ; 



20 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

the itio in partes^ or veto power of religious con- 
fessions. 

IV. Rhenish Confederation, 1254-1350. 

1. Colloquia or deliberative assembly. 

2. Commission or court of arbitration. 

V. The Hansa, 1367-1669. 

1. Commercial objects. 

2. Political importance: war powers and diplomacy. 

3. Organization or constitution. 

a. Bundestag. 
h. Courts. 
; For bibliographies, see Hart, 34-48, notes. 



CHAPTER II. 

ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Section VIII. The "United Colonies of New England," 

1643-1684. 

I. General Condition of the Colonies in 1643 (Frothingham, 
33-38; Fiske, Beginnings of N. E., 140 fif.; Doyle, Puritan 
Colonies, I, 220 ff.). 

1. Relation to the crown and parliament. 

a. Direct superintendence by the king and privy 

council until 1634. 
6. Control vested by king in the lords commissioners 

of foreign plantations, 1634. 

c. Control vested by Long parliament in the lords of 

trade and plantations, April, 1643: a president 
and 17 councillors (Hazard, Hist. Coll., 1, 533) ; 
a new board created, 1655. 

d. Control vested by king in a council committee for 

foreign plantations, July 4, 1660 (instructions 
in N. Y. Docs. rel. to Col. Hist. Ill, 30 f.). 

e. Vested by king in lords of trade and plantations, 

1675. 

f. Vested in the lords commissioners of trade and 

plantations, 1696: president and eight members, 
called the "Board of Trade." 

2. Population of all the colonies; of the New England 

colonies. 

3. Political condition: ecclesiastical troubles; Indian 

policy. 

II. Motives for the Formation of the Confederation (see pre- 
amble) . 

1. Settlement of boundary disputes. 

2. Settlement of cases of intercolonial jurisdiction. 

(21) 



22 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

3. Need of united action regarding Indians, French, and 

Dutch. 

4, Other motives. 

III. Attempts at Union, 1637-1643. 

1. Suggested hj Connecticut, 1637 (Winthrop, Hist, of 

N. E., I, 237) ; articles proposed hj Massachusetts 
discussed, 1628 [iUd., 284) ; urged by Haynes and 
Hooker, 1639 {iUd., 299). 

2. Proposed by magistrates of Rhode Island, New Haven, 

and Counecticut, 1640 (Winthrop, II, 21; Mass. Col. 
Rec, I, 305). 

3. Again proposed, 1642 (Winthrop, II, 85). 

4. May 19, 1643, the articles were agreed upon in a con- 

vention of 13 delegates from Plymouth, Massa- 
chusetts, New Haven, and Connecticut (Bradford, 
416; Winthrop, II, 99). 

IV. Analysis of the Articles : Example of a Written and En- 
acted Constitution ("Organic" Law). 

1. Preamble giving name and declaring purpose of the 

league. 

2. The "United Colonies" declared a "league of friend- 

ship and amytie." 

3. Local independence secured. 

4. Quotas of men and taxes, how determined; gains from 

wars, how distributed. 

5. Forces how raised to meet sudden invasion ; relation of 

bordens to vote in the council of federal commis- 
sioners {cf. sec. VI). 

6. Commissioners : number ; powers ; quorum ; when mat- 

ters to be referred to colonies; time, place, and num- 
ber of meetings; qualifications {cf. sec. X). 

7. President of commissioners: powers. 

8. Powers in intercolonial affairs : extradition of crim- 

inals; fugitive slave clause; change of jurisdiction; 
securing speedy justice. 

9. Federal war-powers. 

10. When four commissioners may act. 

11. Breach of articles: what means of enforcement? 

12. Acceptance of the constitution: case of Plymouth? 



UNITED STATES. 23 

V, Chief Defects of the Constitution. 

1. Franchise. 

2. Some colonies excluded. 

3. No action on the individual. 

VI. History of the Confederation. 

1. Criticism of the policy of Massachusetts: cases of 

Miantonomo and Gorton, 1643: action of the com- 
missioners; nullification, 1G50, 1653 (Doyle, I, 286-88, 
299-301). 

2. Services of the confederation. 

3. The question of sovereignty. 

a. An example of a confederacy of ''dependencies." 
&. Complaints by Gorton and others of usurpation of 
sovereignty. 

1) Winslow's defense, 1646-7. 

2) Letter of the lord commissioners {Mass. CoL 

Rec, II, 141). 

3) Defense by Massachusetts, 1651 (Hutchinson^ 

History, I, 516). 

c. John Eliot's "Christian Commonwealth" {Mass, 

Hist. Coll., first series, III, 9). 

d. Complaints by Breeden, Maverick, and others, 

1661 {Coll. Maine Hist. 8oc., I, 301; Hutchinson, 
Collections, 339; Chalmers, Annals, 178; Froth- 
ingham, 51-2). 

e. Special royal commission, 1664-5 {Mass. Col. Rec.,. 

IV, Pt. II, 157 ff.; Frothingham, 53 flf.; 
Chalmers, Annals, 387-88). 

1) Proceedings in Massachusetts: action of the 

other colonies. 

2) Defense of the confederation by the committee 

of the general court of Massachusetts 
{Mass. Col. Rec., IV, Part II, 231; Froth- 
ingham, 61). 
4. Decline of the confederacy. 

a. Effect of the incorporation of New Haven and 
Connecticut by the charter of 1662 {Phjm. Col. 
Rec, X, 318 ft\) . 
6. New constitution adopted, 1670 {Plym. Col. Rec, 

X, 340-4). 
c. Number of meetings (Frothingham, 63, note). 



24 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

VII. Significance for Federal Institutions of the Gradual In- 
corporation of the New Haven, Connecticut, and Rhode 
Island Towns, respectively, in Colonial Unions? 

REFERENCES. 

1. Text of the articles: Preston, Documents, 85-95; Macdonald, 
iSelect Charters, 94-101; New Haven Col. Records, I, 98-104; Piyw. Col. 
Records, IX, 3-8; American Hist. Leaflets, No. 7. 

2. Records of the Commissioners: Plymouth Colonial Records, 
IX, X; Hazard, Historical Collections, II. 

3. History and Discussion: Important passages in Winthrop, Brad- 
ford, Hutchinson, Chalmers (Annals), and Hubbard, History of Mass. 
(in 2 Mass. Hist. Coll., VI), chap. 53. See also Frothingham, Hise of 
Republic, 33-71; Doyle, Puritan Colonies, I, 220 ff., 277-90; Fiske, Be- 
ginnings of New England, 140 fE., 158 ff.; Fisher, Colonial Era, 133 ff.; 
Thwaite^, Colonies, 154 ff.; Lodge, Short History, ,351-352, 375, 377; 
Bancroft, I, 289-310; Tyler, England in America, 297 ff.; Bryant atid 
Gay, II, 49-50, 373-87; Smith, in Memorial Hist, of Boston, I, chap, vii; 
C. F. Adams, Three Episodes; Brooks Adams, Emancipation of Mass.; 
J. Q. Adams, in 3 Mass. Hist. Coll., IX, 187. 

See bibliographies, in Hart and Channing, Ouide, 276; Winsor, 
Mem. Hist. Boston, I, 299; idem., Narrative and Crit. Hist., Ill, 354; 
Andrews, Colonial Self-Government, chap, i, ii (how controlled by 
central authority) ; N. Y. Docs., Ill, Introduction, on Boards of Trade. 



Section IX. Franklin's Plan of Colonial Union and the 
Albany Convention, 1754. 

I. Congresses, Plans of Union, and Opinions Disclosing a 
Nascent Sentiment of Union, 1684-1754 (Frothingham, 
chaps, iii, iv, 72-131; Howard, Preliminaries of the Revolu- 
tion, 10-15, and the authorities there cited. Cf. Greene, 
Provincial America, 57, and chap, xi; Thwaites, France in 
America, chap. x). 

1. Effect of the general government of Andros; of the 

Leisler incident in New York. 

2. July, 1684: convention of officials of Virginia, Mary- 

land, Massachusetts, and New York, to confer with 
chiefs of the Five Nations. 

3. April and May, 1690, congress of delegates from Massa- 

chusetts, Connecticut, Plymouth, and New York in 
New York City to arrange for common defense. 

4. Other assemblies (Frothingham, 118-119, note). 

5. Plans of union suggested by Penn (1698), Davenant 

(1698), Livingston (1701), Coxe (1722), Kennedy 
(1752), and others. 



UNITED STATES. 25 

II, The Albany Convention, June 19, 1754 (bibliography of 
convention in Winsor, V, 611-14; credentials of delegates 
in Pa. Archives, II, 137). 

1. The call by the lords of trade, September 18, 1754: to 

governors of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massa- 
chusetts, New Hampshire, Virginia, Maryland, and 
Pennsylvania {N. Y. Docs., VI, 802) ; their letter to 
Governor Delancy of New York {ibid., 800). 

2. Representation (see map in Howard, 154). 

a. Chosen by the legislature in Massachusetts, Con- 
necticut, and Rhode Island. 

6. Appointed by governor, in king's name, in New 
Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, and Mary- 
land. 

c. 25 delegates in all. 

3. Results of negotiations with Indians (see records of 

proceedings in Islew York Docs., VI, 853 ff.). 

III. Franklin's Plan of Union (text, in Preston, 170-187, with 
Franklin's comments; Macdonald, Select Charters, 253-57; 
New York Docs., VI, 889-91; Franklin, Works (Sparks), 
III, 36-55 (with his comments) ; O'Callaghan, Doc. Hist. N. 
Y., II, 545). 

1. The executive: president general, appointed and paid 

by the crown. 
a. Absolute veto. 
6. Other powers. 

2. Legislature: grand council. 

a. Members chosen every three years by colonial 

houses of representatives. 

b. Each colony to have 1 to 7 delegates, apportioned 

according to its share of the federal taxes. 
0. Meetings: once a year; privileges and wages of 
members. 

d. Quorum; speaker: when to have powers of presi- 

dent? 

e. Functions (with president in some cases). 

1) Make laws; subject to royal veto in council 

in three years. 

2) With president, to control all Indian affairs. 



26 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

3) Establish, and make laws for, new settle- 

ments on purchased Indian lands; and regu- 
late Indian trade. 

4) War powers: build forts, maintain ships and 

soldiers, and vote taxes therefor. 

5) Appoint general treasurer and special treas- 

urers in the colonies. 
G) Share in appointnieat of civil and military 
officers. 

3. Military constitution : summary of provisions. 

a. Military commissions. 

&. Defense by each colony in cases of emergency, 
c. Military establishments of particular colonies to 
be allowed. 

4. Why the plan was rejected? Significance of the gen- 

eral discussion of it in the colonies? 

REFERENCES. 

Proceedings of the Albany Convention, in New York Docs., VI, 853- 
891; and (in part) in 3 Mass. Hist. Coll., V, 5-74. Several plans of 
union in Am. Hist. Leaflets, No. 14. 

In general, besides the works cited, see Frothingham, 131-150; 
Howard, 13-14; Bancroft, IV, 387; Hildreth, II, 443; Bryant and Gay, 
III, 261; Greene, Historical View, 69; Chalmers, Revolt, II, 271; 
Thwaites, France in America, 170-172. 

Section X. Progress of Federal Sentiment During the 
Preliminary Revolution^ 1763-1775. 

I. The Stamp Act Congress and Its Lesson. 

1. Origin. 

2. Number of colonies represented and number of dele- 

gates (see map in Howard, 155). 

3. Colonial delegates, how chosen. 

4. Proceedings and state papers. 

5. Ratification; value of the discussions preceding and 

following the congress. 
For bibliography, consult Howard, 120-157, 343. See 
Frothingham's account. 

II. The First Continental CongTess, 1774 (see discussion and 
bibliography, in Howard, 280-295, 344-345). 

1. Origin; why it was the completion of the party-organ- 
ization developed in the two classes of committees of 
correspondence ? 



UNITED STATES. 27 

2. Number of colonies represented, and number of dele- 

gates (see map in Howard, 282). 

3. Colonial delegates, how chosen. 

4. Proce'edings and state-papers; the constitution of the 

"Association." 

5. Analysis of Galloway's Plan of Union (text, in Force, 

American Archives, 4th series, 1). 

HI. The Second Continental Congress, 1775 et seq. 

1. Representatives; number and choice (see map in 

Howard, 282). 

2. Gradual assumption of "sovereign" powers. 

3. War powers: creation of a federal army and choice of 

commander-in-chief. 
See bibliography in Howard, 345. Cf. Small, in J. H. U. 
Studies, vill, Nos. 1, 2; and the JournaU- of Con- 
gress, T. 

Section XI. Character of the Confederation, 1781-1789. 

I. The Revolutionary Government by the Continental Con-* 
gress (Fiske, 90: Greene, chap, iii; Frothingham, chap, ix; 
Hildreth, III, 44 ff.). 

1. By what authority it acted? The question of sover- 

eignty. 

2. Character of the "Association" of October 20, 1774? 

In effect it was the "Commencement of the American 
Union" (Hildreth, III, 4G. See the document in 
Preston, 199-205; Macdonald, 362). 

3. What congress accomplished and what it failed to do. 

II. Franklin's Plan of Union, July 21, 1775 (compare with 
his plan of 1754). 

1. States rights: each colony to make and amend its own 

laws. 

2. General government the sole authority in war and 

peace, alliances, commerce, currency, posts, army, 
navy, Indian affairs, and interstate disputes. 

3. Taxes collected by colonies in proportion to numbers. 

4. Congress: one body composed of members chosen an- 

nually and apportioned triennially according to 
numbers. 



28 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

5. Executive to consist of a congressional committee of 

twelve, one-third renewed each year. 

6. Amendments to be approved by a majority of the 

colonial assemblies. 

7. Measures decided by majority vote ; one-half, a quorum. 

III. Analysis of the Thirteen Articles of Confederation (the 
so-called Dickinson Plan). 

1. Origin : a committee of one from each state to mature a 

plan of union, appointed June 11, 1776. Its report 
was submitted July 12, 1776, and approved by con- 
gress, November 15, 1777. By July 9, 1778, the 
articles were ratified by ten states, and by Mary- 
land, the last, March 1, 1781. Through her delay 
Maryland secured our first national domain (see 
Adams, in J. H. U. Studies, III, 7-54). 

2. Articles 1-3; the league of friendship; style of the 

union; sovereignty. 

3. Article 4 : free inhabitants of all states to have rights 

of free citizens in each state; extradition; faith and 
credit in judicial records and proceedings, and acts 
of magistrates, among states. 

4. Article 5 : representation in congress : each state 2 to 

7 delegates, paid by state ; each state one vote ; parlia- 
mentary privileges. 

5. Article 6 : prohibitions on the states. 

6. Article 7: appointment of regimental officers by the 

state. 

7. Article 8 : requisitions on states instead of national 

taxes. 

8. Articles 9, 10 : powers of congress. 

a. General powers. 

6. Measures requiring nine states. 

c. Settlement of interstate disputes. 

d. Coinage, weights and measures, posts, etc. 

e. Duties of the committee of states. 

9. Articles 10-13 : admission of Canada and of other 

colonies; bills of credit; amendments by vote of all 
states. 



UNITED STATES. 29 

IV. Preliminary View of the Defects of the Confederation. 

1. The principal sources of weakness (Fiske, 99; Schouler, 

I, 16; compare McLaughlin, chaps, iv, v, xi). 

a. The requirement of a vote of nine states for all 
important measures; and unanimous consent of 
all states for an amendment. 

&. State control of commerce; helplessness of United 
States in dealing with foreign powers. 

c. Lack of coercive power; no action of the national 
government on individual ; congress might de- 
mand troops and money, but could not enforce 
the requisition. 

2. Evidences of weakness (Fiske, chap. iii). 

a. Madison's proposed amendment giving the United 
States power to use military force to compel a 
^'delinquent state to fulfill its federal engage- 
ments"; a constitutional convention proposed by 
William Barton, May, 1781 (Bancroft, Const., I, 
24, note 3). 

6. Military weakness and the cause. 

c. Financial weakness; interest on foreign debt; 

dread of the army ; the five per cent duty ; Colonel 
Nicola wishes Washington made king; the ''New- 
burg address," March 11, 1783; expulsion of con- 
gress from Philadelphia, June 21, 1783. 

d. The order of the Cincinnati; cause of the violent 

opposition to it? 

e. Failure to carry out the treaty of 1783; persecu- 

tion of the Tories; the New York Trespass Act, 
1784; Hamilton and the case of Rutgers v. Wad- 
dington; the Phocion (Hamilton) and Mentor 
(Ledyard) letters; England retains the western 
posts, 

REFERENCES. 

1. Text of Articles of Confederation: Preston, 21&; Poore, Charters, 
I, 7 ff.; Macdonald, Select Documents, 6-15; Townsend, Civil Govern- 
ment, 46-55; Elliot, Debates, I, 79-85; Johnston, Politics, 280-294; 
Stearns, Constitutional History, 313 ff.; Macy, Our Government, 251 
ff.; Cooper, Am^erican Politics, pt. Ill, 5 ff. 

2. Franklin's Plan: Bancroft, IV, 243-44; Frothingham, 481, note; 
Morse, Franklin, 206; Draper, Civil War, I, 258; Pitkin, II, ch. xi. 

3. Character of the Confederation: Fiske, Critical Period, ch. iii; 
Frothingham, 481, 517, 569-71, 573-84; Curtis, I, 80, 86 ff.; Preston, 



30 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

218-19; Schouler, History of U. S., I, 13 f£.; Hildreth, III, 395 ff., 
453-54; Von Hoist, I, ch. i; Bancroft, V, 199 ff., 439 ff.; Federalist, 
Index at "Confederation"; Elliot, Debates, I, 67 ff., 70-78 (Jefferson's 
notes); Fiske, Civil Government, 18-23; Story, Commentaries, I, 217- 
223, passim; Crane and Moses, Politics, 135-141; Lalor, I, 591-92, 574-76; 
Schouler, Const. Studies, 70-92; Donaldson, Public Domain, 59-60; 
Landon, Const. Hist., 42-62; Macy, Our Government, 35 ff.; Morse, 
Hamilton, I, ch. iv (Confederation), v (Ledyard) ; Draper, Civil War, 
I, 259 ff; Pitkin, II, ch. xi, xvi; Johnston, U. 8., 136. See especially 
the view of McLaughlin, in his recent book. The Confederation and the 
Constitution; and read Van Tyne, American Revolution, chaps, ix, xi. 



Section XII. Origin of the Constitutional Convention of 

1787. 

A. The Weakness of the Confederation, 1781-1787. 

I. Failure of All Plans to Strengthen the Confederacy. 

1. By grant of specific powers. 

a. Five per cent, scheme, 1781-1783 {A. H. L., No. 28, 

p. 2). 
I. Revenue scheme, 1783-1786 {A. H. L., No. 28, p. 12). 

c. Commerce scheme, 1784-1787 (A. H. L., No. 28, p. 

20). 

d. Minor schemes. 

1) Monroe's report, July 13-14, 1785 (Bancroft, 

Hist., VI, 142-45; \dem, Const., I, 192-6; 
A. E. L., No. 28, p. 25). 

2) Seven amendments to the Articles of Con- 

federation proposed August, 1786 (Bancroft, 
Const., I, 260-62; A. H. L., No. 28, p. 26). 

2. By grant of coercive powers. 

a. Washington urges, 1781-1786 (Fiske, 99-100; Madi- 
son, Papers, I, 81-84). 

6. New York senate recommends, September, 1780 
(Bancroft, Const., I, 12-13). 

c. Madison proposes in report to congress, March 16, 

1781 (Madison, Papers, I, 86-90; Bancroft, Const., 
I, 23; A. E. L., No. 28, p. 3). 

d. The Virginia resolution. May, 1784 ; distress on in- 

dividuals (Bancroft, Const., I, 163). 

3. By change in the form of government. 

a. To a monarchy or dictatorship, 1781-1783 (Fiske, 
107-8; Gay, Madison, 77-9). 



UNITED STATES. 31 

&, To a centralized government, the states to be sup- 
pressed or reduced to mere provinces (Gay, 78). 
c. To a closer federal union, 1780-1785. 

1) Price convention of northeastern states, at 

Boston, August, 1780, declares for one su- 
preme head and a more efficient legislature, 
recommends the Hartford Convention (Sum- 
ner, Financier, I, 92). 

2) November 11, 1780, Hartford Price Convention 

of northeastern states and New York 
urges need of stronger federal government 
(Bancroft, Const., I, 14-15). 

3) Amendments to Articles of Confederation pro- 

posed in report of a congressional committee 
(Randolph, Ellsworth, Varnum), August 22, 
1781 (Bancroft, Const., I, 25-27; A. H. L., 
No. 28, p. 4). 

4. Personal influence. 

a. Washington's influence (Curtis, I, 265-273; Ban- 
croft, Const., I, 16-19; Lodge, II, 16 If.); his 
letter to Jefferson, etc. (Madison. Papers) ; to 
Harrison, 1784 (Bancroft, V. S., VI, 115) ; to J. 
P. Custis (Bancroft, Const., I, 21-2) ; great in- 
fluence of his letter ('legacy") of June 8. 1783 
(Fiske, 54; Bancroft, Const., I, 100 fl\) ; on the 
Virginia resolves of December 24, 1779 (Ban- 
croft, Const., I, 19-21) . 
h. Hamilton's influence (Schouler, I, 24 ff . ; Lodge, 
Hamilton, 50-57; Curtis, I, 273-82; Morse. Hamil- 
ton, I, 15.5-176) ; letter to Duane, September 30, 
1780 (Curtis, I, 138, note, 236-9, note; Bancroft, 
Const., I, 13) ; his "Continental" papers (see 
Hamilton's ed. of Federalist; Bancroft, Const., 
I, 25-6). 

c. Madison's influence (Schouler, I. 26-7; Curtis, I, 

282-90; Bancroft, Const., I, 81-4). 

d. Pelatiah Webster's influence (Bancroft, Hist., VI, 

66; idem. Const., I. 86; A. H. L., No. 28, p. 7). 

e. Noah Webster's influence, 1784-5; a government 

acting on individuals (Curtis, I, 236; Bancroft, 



32 FBDEEAL INSTITUTIONS. 

U. S., VI, 136; Const, 1, 184-5; A. H. L., No. 28, 
pp. 21-24) . 
f. Patrick Henry's influence (Tyler, Henry, 266-278). 

II. Anarchy and Impending Dissolution, 1786-7. 

1. Collapse of the national finances. 

2. Ruin of foreign commerce. 

3. Insurrection (Shays's rebellion) and strife in the 

states (see the Wyoming, Vermont, and Tennessee 
troubles). 

4. Threatened secession of the West, and of New England 

(see Mississippi question). 

5. Danger of sectional unions. 

6. Foreign predictions of failure. 

B. Growth of Popular Sentiment m Favor of a Constitutional 

Convention. 

I. Early Proposals by Individuals. 

1. Hamilton suggests in his letter to Duane, September 

30, 1780 (Curtis, I, 138, note, 236-9, note; Bancroft, 
Const., I, 13) ; and in congress, 1783 (Curtis, I, 236, 
note Z; A. H. L., No. 28, p. 15 ; Hamilton, WorTcs, I, 
288-95). 

2. Thomas Paine in ''Public Good," December, 1780 (Ban- 

croft, Const., I, 13). 

3. Greene demands, 1780 (Bancroft, Const., I, 14). 

4. William Barton urges in a pamphlet published May, 

1781, wrongly ascribed to Pelatiah Webster (Ban- 
croft, Const., I, 24, note 3; cf. Fiske, 101, 222; Curtis, 
I, 236, note 3 ; Schouler, I, 24) . 

II. Proposals of State Legislatures. 

1. New York resolution, 1782, suggested by Hamilton 

(Curtis, I, 236, note 3; Bancroft, Hist., VI, 30-31, V, 
559; idem, Const., I, 29, 37-9; Hildreth, III, 477). 

2. Massachusetts resolution, June- July, 1785 (Curtis, I, 

225-8 ; McMaster, I, 256-9) . 

in. The Virginia-Maryland Commercial Commission, 1784-5. 

1. Influence of Washington in formation of plans for 

commercial intercourse between East and West 

(Adams, in J. H. U., Studies, III, 80-102; Bancroft, 



UNITED STATES. 33 

Hist, VI, 113-114, 125 flf.; Lodge, Washington, II, 
14-17). 

2. Meeting of the commissioners at Mount Vernon, March, 

1785. Washington's probable influence (Curtis, I, 
230, note 2; Marshall, Washington, V, 90; Adams, 
in J. H. U., Studies, III, 41) ; the commission en- 
larges its plan; its report (Bancroft, Const., I, 250; 
Curtis, I, 231; McMaster, I, 277-8). 

3. Maryland accepts the suggestion of the commission, 

November' 1785, and proposes to invite the coopera- 
tion of Delaware and Pennsylvania (McMaster, I, 
279) . 

4. Madison secures the Virginia resolution of January 21, 

1786, inviting all states to meet in convention to con- 
sider federal regulation of trade, and providing for 
the appointment of seven commissioners; the latter 
suggests that the meeting be held at Annapolis on 
the first Monday in September, 1786 (McMaster, I, 
279-81; Bancroft, Hist, VI, 183; Curtis, I, 231). 

5. New Jersey prepares the way, October 20, 1786, by re- 

fusing requisitions until all the states agree on im- 
posts for the federal treasur'y ; her instructions to her 
delegates included commerce and "other important 
matters" (Bancroft, Const., I, 256-7; idem, Hist., 
VI, 187). 

IV. The Annapolis Convention, September 14, 1786 (Bancroft, 
Const, I, 267 ff.). 

1. Five states only represented : New York, Pennsylvania, 

New Jersey, Virginia, Delaware. 

2. Hamilton secures a. call for a federal convention, the 

second Monday in May, 1787; the expressed object 
being to make improvements in Articles of Confedera- 
tion, to be ratified by all states. 

V. The States Accept the Call. 

1. Virginia, under guidance of Madison, takes the lead in 

approving the call, November, 1786; the struggle in 
New York and other states (Bancroft, Hist., VI, 97- 
203 ; idem. Const., I, 271-8) . 

2. Congress sanctions the proposed convention, February 

21, 1787. 
3 



34 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 



REFERENCES. 

1. Failure of the Confederation and Impending Anarchy: Schouler, I, 
19-34; Von Hoist, I, 35-48; McMaster, I, 356 ff., 391 ff.; Lalor, Cyclo- 
paedia, III, 475-6; Gay, Madison, 53-63; Story, Commentaries, I, sees. 
269-71; Curtis, I, 221 ff.; Draper, Civil War, I, 266-77; Woolsey, Politi- 
cal Science, II, 245-48; Bancroft, Const., I, chaps, vi, vii; idem, 
Hist., VI, chaps, vi, vii, viii; Lodge, Hamilton; especially McLaughlin, 
chaps, ix, X, xi. 

2. Origin of the Federal Constitution: The Virginia-Maryland Com- 
mission, the Antiapolis Commercial Convention, and the call for a 
federal convention: Bancroft, Const., I, 169-74, 176-77, 249-57, 267-78; 
idem. Hist., VI, 129, 184-85, 195-203; Curtis, I, 277 f£., 389-400; Fiske, 
Grit. Period, 212, 222; Schouler, I, 29-35; Frothingham, Rise 
of Republic, 585-89; Hildreth, III, 477-78; Story, Commentaries, 
I, sees. 272-74; Gay, Madison, 47-87; Lodge, Hamilton, 50-57; 
Elliot, Debates, I; Roberts, New York, II, 444-8; Morse, Hamilton, I, 
158-76; Lodge, Washington, II, 1-29; Landon, 56-66; Hart, 115-28; 
Smith (Goldwin), U. S., 119-29; McLaughlin, chaps, xii, xiii. 



Section XIII. The Federal Convention : Principal Plans 
AND Compromises. 

I. Theory of the Constitutional Convention (Lalor, Cyclo- 
paedia, 1, 626-27; Jameson, Constitutional Convention, 1-13, 
99 ff.). 

1. The revolutionary convention. 

a. English examples: the convention-parliaments of 
1399, 1688. 

6. French examples : the convention of 1793-95, etc. 

c. American examples: Massachusetts convention, 
1689; the state conventions and provincial con- 
gresses, 1775-77; the state secession conventions, 
1861. 

2. The constitutional convention. 

a. An American institution, suggested by the revolu- 
tionary convention. 
Z). Limitation of its sphere or power : 

1) French theory. 

2) American theory. 

c. Its function: to enact organic as opposed to 

statutory lavi^; to formulate a "written constitu- 
tion." 

d. Call, election, and procedure of a convention 

(Jameson, 99 ff.). 



UNITED STATES. 35 

II. Organization, Composition, and General Character of the 
Convention of 1787. 

1. The gathering, May 14-25. 

2. Organization, May 25: Washington, president; Wil- 

liam Jackson, secretary; Nicholas Weaver, mes- 
senger; rules adopted May 28; proceedings to be 
secret (Elliot, Debates, 1, 139-143; Schouler, I, 36). 

3. Difficulties (Fiske, 222-232; Von Hoist, I, 49 fif.; Lalor, 

I, 547; Gay, Madison, 89-97; Frothingham, 585- 
586; Hildreth, III, 584-7; McMaster, I, 418-23; 
Schouler, I, 36-8; Hart, 121 ff.). 

a. Popular jealousy of a convention; timidity of the 
members; Washington's appeal (Fiske, 231-2); 
lack of experience and difference of interests. 

6. The limitation of the convention's power as shown 
by the call of congress and the credentials of 
members (Elliot, Debates, I, 119, 123-139) ; did 
the convention transcend its proper authority in 
preparing a new constitution? (Bryce, I, 18, 
note) . 

c. Character and ability of the members; education, 

number of college men; leaders: Washington, 
Franklin, Hamilton, etc. ; Madison, the "Father of 
the Constitution"; difference in individual views 
(Fiske, 224-232; Hildreth, III, 484); represen- 
tative men not members (Fiske, 225). 

d. Parties and antagonisms. 

1) Federalists and anti-federalists (for the "Ir- 

reconcilables" and anti-federal leaders, see 
Fiske, 229). 

2) Friends of centralization vs. the advocates of 

state sovereignty. 

3) Large states vs. small states. 

4) Commercial or trade states vs. agricultural 

states. 

5) North vs. South. 

6) East vs. West. 

III. The Principal Plans of Government Submitted. 

1. The Virginia (Madison's) plan, May 29; centralization; 
action on individuals (Elliot, I, 143-5, 181-3). 



36 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

a. Principal features. 

1) Two houses: lower chosen by popular vote; 

upper by the lower from nominees of state 
legislatures. 

2) In each house individual vote and majority 

decision. 

3) Representation according to property or 

population. 

4) Executive to be chosen by the national 

legislature. 

5) National legislature to nullify unconstitu- 

tional state laws. 

6) National judiciary. 

6. Debate on the Virginia plan (Elliot, I, 150 ff. ; 
Fiske, 242-5). 

2. The New Jersey (Patterson's) plan; June 15 (Elliot, I, 

175-177). 
a. Leading features : 

1) In general, the plan provided for mere amend- 

ment of the Articles. 

2) An executive, in form of council, to be chosen 

by congress. 

3) Powers of congress increased but no action on 

individual ; vote by states. 
6. Debate on scheme; rejected June 19 (Elliot, De- 
lates I, 177 ff. ; Fiske, 245-50) . 

3. Other plans. 

a. Plan of Charles Pinckney, May 29 (Elliot, I, 145- 
50) ; not genuine. 

&. Plan of Alexander Hamilton, June 18; centraliza- 
tion (Elliot, I, 179-80; Schouler, I, 41). 

IV. The Three Great Compromises. 

1. The first or Connecticut compromise, July 7; state 
representation (Fiske, 250 ff.; Elliot, V, 248-87, 
311-19). 
a. Lower house, composed of representatives chosen 
by popular vote and distributed according to 
population (one for 30,000). 
6. Upper house, composed of two senators from each 
state, voting as individuals. 



UNITED STATESu 37 

2. The second or three-fifths compromise; representation 

for slaves, July 12 (Elliot, V, 294-310). 
a. The struggle leading to the compromise. 
6. Was the compromise just or expedient? Was it 

open? (Goodell, 8la/very and Anti-slavery, 222-4; 

Fiske, 261-2). 

3. The third or New England-South Carolina compromise 

(August, 25) : slave trade and federal control of 

commerce (Elliot, I, 256, 374, 375, V, 545-62, 

477-8, 488-92). 
a. Why the South opposed commercial powers (Fiske, 

262). 
6. Slave trade granted till 1808. 

c. Opposition of Mason and Virginians. 

d. Was the compromise necessary? 

REFERENCES. 

1. General References: Fiske, 222-68; Schouler, I, 36-37; Bancroft, 
Const., II; idem, U. S., VI, 207-70; Frothingham, 589 ff.; McMaster, 

I 417-27, 437-53; Bryce, I, 18-25; Jameson, Const. Convention, ch. i, 
iii, iv; Hildreth, III, 482 ff.; Von Hoist, I, 49 ff.; Lalor, I, 637-40, 
548-49, II, 973-75; Johnston Politics, 10-17; Curtis, I, 315 ff.; Hart, 
121 ff.; Von Hoist, Const. Law, 15 ff.; Cooley, Const. Law, 15; Gold- 
win Smith, 121 ff.; Foster, On the Const., I, 19 ff., 80 ff. 

2. The Compromises: Fiske, 242-68; Bancroft, Const., II, 47-48, 128- 
32, 141-4, 151-60; idem, U. S., VI, 239-69, 299-301, 315-23; Curtis, I, 
368, 314 ff.; Von Hoist, I, 289-91, 293-9; Hildreth, III, 494-520; Gay, 
Madison, 98-114; Wilson, Slave Power, I, 39-53; Elliot, Debates, I, V, 
as cited; Lalor, I, 547-9, II, 973-5; Foster, I, 41-44; Farrand, in A. H. 
R., IX, 479. 

3. Sources: Elliott's Debates: Documentary Hist, of Const. (3 vols.. 
Wash., 1894); Madisoti's Journal in Elliot, V; ibid., edited by E. H. 
Scott (Chicago, 1893); Hunt's edition of Writings of James Madison, 

II (1901). 

4. Pinckney's Plan: Jameson, in A. H. R., VIII, 509-511; "Sketch 
of Pinckney's Plan," in ibid., IX, 735-47; Jameson, in Report of A. 
H. A., 1902, vol. I; McLaughlin, Confederation and Constitution, 
194-95. 



Section XIV. The Federal Convention : Completion and 
Katification op the Constitution. 

A. The Details of the Constitution. 

I. Powers of Congress and of the States (Fiske, 268-77). 

1. Powers granted to congress {Const., art. I, sec. 8; 
art. Ill, sec. 3; art. IV) ; the "general welfare" and 



38 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

the '^uniformity of taxation" clauses; debates on the 
power to suppress "domestic violence" in a state, etc. 

2. Powers denied to congress (art. I, sec. 9; art. Ill, 

sec. 3) ; the debates on power to issue "bills of credit" 
(Fiske, 273-6; Elliot, V, 130, 378, 434-5). 

3. Powers denied the states (art. I, sec. 14; Fiske, 272). 

II. Debates on the Executive (Fiske, 277-300; Bancroft, Const., 
II, 166-94). 

1. Form: single or plural? Sherman's suggestion. 

2. Tenure: for life or a term of years? Whether re- 

eligible? 

3. How to be chosen? By congress? ; By the_ people 

directly? By an electoral college? Various modes 
of choice suggested. 

4. The electoral college (Elliot, V, index at "Electors"). 

a. How should it be constituted? Various plans. 

6. Its intended character and function and the 
practical result {Federalist, 423-8; Bryce, I, 37- 
41; Tiedeman, 46-51; Fiske, 280-4). 

5. Count of the electoral votes ; case of 1877. 

6. Choice of the president on failure of the electors : by 

the senate or by the house? The compromise. 

7. The question of a privy council for the president 

(Elliot, V, 150, 442, 446, 462, 525-6; Curtis, I, 575) ; 
the senate's share in appointments the result of a 
compromise. Origin of the American cabinet; com- 
parison with the British. 

8. Was the English kingship the model of the presidency? 

Was it wise to separate the legislative and the ex- 
ecutive departments? (See Fiske, 278, 289-93.) 

III. The Judicial Department (Bancroft, Const., II, 195-206; 
Bryce, Am. Commonwealth) . 

1. Is the supreme court an original feature? 

2. Is its constitutional function a natural outgrowth of 

the jurisdiction of the English and colonial courts? 
(Bryce, I, chap. 23). 

3. Influence of Marshall, 1800-1835 (Const. Hist, and Am. 

Law, 55-120). 

4. Is the constitutional function wise or necessary? (See 

Smith, Spirit of the Am. Qov&r'nmewt.) 



UNITED STATES. 39 

IV. Stages in the Convention's Work. 

1. May 25-29 : Organization, rules, credentials, submis- 

sion of plans. 

2. May 30 to July 23: Debates on plans, compromises, 

and details. 

3. July 24: ^'Committee of detail" appointed and the re- 

sults of the proceedings of the convention referred 
to it. 

4. August 6 : Committee of detail submits a draft of a 

constitution of the United States (printed in Elliot, 
V, 376-81; Curtis, I, 721-8). 

5. September 8: Committee of five to ''revise the style 

and arrange the articles." 

6. September 12 : Committee of five reports the final draft 

in a letter to congress. 

7. September 17 : Convention dissolved. 

V. Deficiencies of the Constitution. 

1. No bill of rights. 

2. Annexation of territory not foreseen. 

3. Growth of patronage not provided for ; hence no proper 

provision for the civil service, 

4. Growth of party organization not foreseen. 

5. No provisions for the protection of national elections 

and for settlement of double returns (case of 1877). 

6. No express provision against secession. 

7. Faults of the judicial system created. 

B. Ratification of the Constitution (Fiske, 306-50). 

I. Character of the Struggle and the General Results. 

1. Leaders of the opposition and champions of the con- 

stitution. 

2. Objections to the constitution; to the fundamental 

plan; to the general coercive powers of the govern- 
ment; to the deficiencies; miscellaneous objections 
{Federalist, 226-8; Story, I, 206-20; Wilson, in Elliot, 
II, 497ff.). 

3. Formation of parties: federalists and anti-federalists. 

II. Progress of Ratification. 

1. Delaware, December 7, 1787 (Elliot, I, 319; Bancroft, 
Const., II, 248-50). 



40 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2. Pennsylvania, December 13, 1787: Objection to two 

houses; pamphlet war (Elliot, I, 310-20, II, 415-546; 
Bancroft, Const,^ II, 238-48). James Wilson ex- 
pounds the constitution. 

3. New Jersey, December 18, 1787 (Elliot, I, 320-1; Ban- 

croft, Const., II, 252-4). 

4. Georgia, January 2, 1788 (Elliot, I, 324; Bancroft, 

Comt, II, 254). 

5. Connecticut, January 9, 1788 (Elliot, I, 321-2, II, 185- 

202; Bancroft, II, 255-8). 

6. Massachusetts, February 7, 1788 (Elliot, I, 322-3, II, 

1-183; Bancroft, Const., 258-76). Influence of John 
Adams? Of Hancock? Of Nathan Dane? Of King 
and the clergy? Amendments recommended. 

7. Maryland, April 28, 1788 (Elliot, I, 324, II, 547-56; 

Bancroft, Const., II, 277-84). 

8. South Carolina, May 23, 1788 (Elliot, I, 325, IV, 

253-342; Bancroft, Const., II, 285-94); Lowndes^s 
speech (Fiske, 332-4; Elliot, IV, 271-2). 

9. New Hampshire, June 21, 1788 (Elliot, I, 325-7) ; 

amendments suggested. 

10. Virginia, June 26, 1788 (Elliot, I, 327, III, entire; 

Bancroft, Const., II, 225-237, 295 ff.) ; Henry's in- 
fluence (Tyler, Henry, 270-301; Fiske, 331-2); in- 
fluence of R. H. Lee and Mason? Of Randolph? Of 
Madison ? Washington ? Marshall ? 

11. New York, July 26, 1788 (Elliot, I, 327-31, II, 205- 

414) ; influence of Hamilton; character of the 
Federalist ; influence of Clinton, Yates, Lansing ? 

12. North Carolina, forced in, November 21, 1789 (Elliot, 

I, 331-2, 333, IV, 1-252) ; bill of rights ought to be 
drafted. 

13. Rhode Island, forced in, May 20, 1790 (Elliot, I, 
334-337) ; declaration of rights 

III. Movement Toward a Second Constitutional Convention 
(Smith, in Jameson's Essays, 46-115). 

IV. Character of the Ratification (Hart, Outline, 35). 

1. Forms : by what persons ; in whose name ; in what 
terms; conditions and recommendations (Elliot, I, 
319-335). 



UNITED STATES. 41 

2. Theory of ratification by "states" (Hayne, in Elliot, 

IV, 510). 

3. Theory of ratification by the people (Lalor, III, 1003, 

789; Frothingham, 599-602). 

a. "The people in independent communities" (Cal- 
houn, in Works, VI, 151-2) . 

6. "The people in each of the states" (Madison, North 
American Review, vol. 31, p. 538). 

c. "The people of the United States" (Webster, in 
Elliot, IV, 498-9; Story, Commentaries, I, sees. 
262-3). 

4. Theory of ratification by both people and states. 

REFERENCES. 

1. Details of the Constitution: Fiske, 268 ff.; Curtis, I, 333-609; 
Landon, 63-82; Bancroft, Const., II, 89-97, 119-164; idem, Hist., VI, 
255-76, 292-367; Hildreth, III, 485-526; Elliot, Debates, V (the table of 
contents gives a summary for each day's work) ; Doc. Hist, of Const. 

2. Ratification of the Constitution: Elliot, II, III, IV; Federalist; 
Von Hoist, I, 52-75; Story, I, sees. 281-92; Lalor, I, 99, 606-7, II, 165; 
McMaster, I, 454 ff.; Curtis, I, 623-97; Bryce, I, 23-5; Harding, Fed- 
eral Const, in Mass.; Hildreth, III, 533-6; Schouler, I, 5-70; Froth- 
ingham, 579-603; Republic of Republics, 73-147, 433-56; Lodge, Ham- 
ilton, 65-80; Bancroft, Const., II, 225-367; Gay, Madison, 115-27; Morse, 
Jefferson, 92-5; Hosmer, Samuel Adams, 392-491; Tyler, Henry, 279- 
301; Latidor, 82-96; Bancroft, Hist., VI, 374-462; Morse, Hamilton, I, 
238-75; Foster, I; A. H. R., IX, 310 ff. (Patterson's papers); Steiner, 
in A. H. R., V, 207 (Maryland). 

3. Electoral College and the Executive: Elliot, V, 334-50, 358-70; 
Landon, 70-71; Tiedeman, Unwritten Const., 40-51; Bryce, Common- 
wealth, I, 37-41; Curtis, I, 425, 455, 563-6; Bancroft, Const, II, 166-194; 
idem, Hist., VI, 326 ff.; Fiske, 280 ff.; Madison, Papers, III, Index at 
Executive; Story, II, sees. 1410-1488. 

In General: See Hunt's Writings of Madson, IV; and Documentary 
History of Constitution, comparing with Elliot's Debates. The latest 
and fullest discussion of the work of the Convention and the adoption 
of the Constitution is McLaughlin, Confederation and Constitution, 
184-317. He has a good bibliography, 332-36. 



Section XV. Sources and Character op the Constitution 
OF THE United States. 

I. What Is a "Constitution"? Definition (Story, I, sees. 339- 
40; Const, of United States, art. 6; Jameson, 67-8; Tiede- 
man, 16; Cooley, Const. Limit., 4; idem. Principles of 
Const. Law, 21). 



42 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

II. Varieties of Constitutions: Jameson's Classification 
(Const. Convention, 67-87). 

1. A constitution, considered as a ''fact" ort organic 

growth, may be: 
a. Absolute monarchy or aristocracy. 
6. Oligarchy. 

c. Limited monarchy. 

d. Republic (democratic republic). 

e. Democracy. 

f. Federal or non-federal. 

2. A constitution, considered as a source of evidence, may 

be: 

Z>. An enacted constitution j 

c. Unwritten constitution 1 As to characteristic as 

d. Written constitution j evidence. 



a. A cumulative constitution i . , , „ . , 

As to mode of oriffin. 



III. Sources of the Federal Constitution (Foster, I, 27-60; 
Stevens, Sources of the Constitution) . 

1. From the English constitution : the principal elements 

are a part of our English heritage. 

2. From American experience: evolution of the written 

instrument (see Morey, in Annals of Am. Acad., 
I, 529-57). 

a. Commercial charters. 

6. Charters of government : charters of Rhode Island, 
1644, 1663; of Connecticut, 1662; of Massa- 
chusetts, 1691. 

G. Popular constitutions : charters of New Haven, 
1638-9 ; of Connecticut, 1639. 

d. The state constitutions, 1775-87. 

e. Experiments in federal government: New Eng- 

land Confederacy, 1643-84; Confederation; 
Franklin's plans, 1754, 1775 ; other plans, already 
discussed. 

3. Question of Dutch influence (see Campbell, The 

Puritan, I, 1-89, II, 405 fif., 465-8). 

4. Principal features often alleged to be new {cf. Robin- 

son, in Annals of Am. Acad., I, 203 ff.). 
a. Constitutional function of the supreme court (see 
Bryce's review. Commonwealth, I, ch. xxiii; 



UNITED STATES. 43 

Atlantic, November, 1892, 700; Wilson, H. H., 
Unwritten Elements, 420-3). 
6. The dual statehood or dual sovereignty : relation of 
the state to the federal government; only the civil 
war could settle the real sovereignty (Tiedeman, 
110-28) . 

c. Popular sovereignty: the subjection of all govern- 

mental agencies to the will of the people. This 
is now threatened (1) by corruption of the bal- 
lot; (2) by suppression of free and fair repre- 
sentation; (3) by abuse of courts. 

d. The system of "checks and balances": this is now 

breaking down through the encroachments of de- 
partments on each other's sphere (Wilson, W., 
Congressional Govt., 10-14). 
5. Practical result : a new and most significant experiment 
in self-government. 

IV. Theory of the Nature of the Constitution (Story, I, 221- 
72; Elliot, II, 496 ff, (various opinions) ; Hart, Formation 

of the Union, 133-6; Bryce, I, ch. 28; Wilson, 475-9) 

1. Is the constitution a "social compact" or a "voluntary 
association"? (Southern view: see Tucker, in 
Story, I, sees. 310-18 ; idem, I, sees. 306-9, 310-72 ; 
Republic of Republics, 5^-61, 561-571; Elliot, IV, 
509 ff., 523, 540-545, 547-8; denied by Wilson, in 
Elliot, II, 407-9; Cooley, Principles of Const. 
Law, 25-6 ; Jameson, 69-74 ; Webster, Works, III, 
448-505.) 

a. Whether the compact was in form : 

1) A "treaty" or "convention." 

2) A "league." 

3) A "contract." 

b. Between whom was it a compact? 

1) W^ere the states, as distinguished from the 
people of the states, the only parties? 
(Hayne, in Elliot. IV, 510; Virginia resolu- 
tions, 1778; Kentucky resolutions, 1778-9, in 
Elliot, IV, 528 ff., 540 ff.; compare coMra, 
Story, I, sees. 361-3; Webster, in Elliot, IV, 
408-9; Webster, Works, III, 346, 440 ff.) 



44 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2) Were the people of each state, or of the whole 

United States, a party? (Story, I, sees. 358- 
60, 365, notes.) 

3) Was the federal government a party? (Story, 

I, sees. 367-8, notes.) 

2. Does the constitution rest upon the consent of the 

people? (Webster, In reply to Hayne, in Elliot, IV, 
498 ff.; Webster, Works, III, 448 flf.; Wilson, in 
Elliot, II, 497-9; denied by Hart, Formation of the 
Union, 134.) 

3. Is the constitution an "instrument of government"? 

(Story, I, sees. 339-40, 372; Draper, Civil War, I, 
285-6 ; Von Hoist, Const. Law, 43-4, 49-66 ; Cooley, in 
Const. History and Amer. Law, 29-34; idem. Const. 
Limit., 5.) 

4. Are the states sovereign? (For the various arguments, 

see Calhoun, Works, VI, 151-2, 59 ff., 94 ff.; Lalor, 
III, 788-800; RepuMic of Republics, 325-334; Von 
Hoist, Const. Law, 39-47; Webster, in Elliot, IV, 
499 ; Hayne, in Elliot, IV, 509 fE. ; Ordronaux, Const. 
Legislation, 48-91, 111 ff. ; especially Tledeman, 110- 
28.) 

V. Growth of the Federal Constitution. 

1. Through amendment; difficulty of amendment; more 

than 1700 amendments have been offered, 1789-1905, 
only 15 adopted (see Ames, in Am. Hist. Papers, V, 
19-20). 

2. The constitution is not a complete scheine of govern- 

ment; the powers of the state are not expressed. 

3. Principles of expansion: 

a. Is there an "unwritten constitution" in the sense 
of a common law or custom, superior to the 
written instrument; and does its sanction rest 
upon public opinion? (The view of Tiedeman, 
Unwritten Constitution, 1-45, 145-55, passim. 
Cf. Story, I, sec. 400.) 

1). Is the United States government one of "enu- 
merated" powers (see 10th amendment) ? Or 
may the federal government exercise powers pro- 



UNITED STATES. 45 

hibited to the state, but not delegated to the 
United States? (Tiedeman, 137-44.) 

c. Significant clauses of the constitution favoring 

expansion: ''general welfare" clause; clause re- 
lating to laws "necessary and proper" to enforce 
the powers of congress; commerce clause, etc. 

d. Influence of judicial interpretation : Marshall's de- 

cisions {Const. Eist. and Anwr. Law, 91 ff. ; 
Wilson, H. H., 421-2). Doctrine of "implied 
powers." 
6. Influence of executive action : Louisiana purchase, 
Monroe doctrine, etc. 

f. Influence of legislative action. 

1) Growth of the speaker's powers (Hart, in 

Atlantic, March, 1891; Follett, Speakership). 

2) Growth of committee government (Bryce, I, 

chap. 15; Wilson, Congressional Government, 
64 ff.). 

3) Senatorial patronage, etc. 

g. Elasticity of the unwritten or "customary" con- 

stitution of England, as compared with the 
elasticity of the so-called "rigid" or "paper" con- 
stitution of the United States. 

VI. Examples of Unsettled Constitutional Questions (sug- 
gested as a guide to study). 

1. National status of slavery; meaning of the "fugitive 

slave," the "three-fifths," and the slave-trade clauses; 
of the word "persons" (Dred Scott case, 1856-7). 

2. Question of "dual" citizenship, state and federal (Cal- 

houn, Works, II, 242; Tiedeman, 91-109). 

3. Status of the territories (Missouri Compromise, 1820; 

compromises of 1850: Story II, sees. 1917, 1920-1); 
recent "insular" decisions. 

4. Meaning of "republican form of government" (period 

of "reconstruction"). 

5. Extent of power to regulate commerce, "encourage- 

ment of manufactures," embargoes, etc. 

6. Extent of the powers of the state. 

7. Extent of war powers (paper money, suspension of 

habeas corpus, emancipation, control of corporations). 



46 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

8. Question of removal from and tenure of office. 

9. Question of constructive powers; of police power. 

REFERENCES. 

1. Sources of the Constitution: H!art, Formation of the Union, 
5-10, 124-5; Stevens, Sources of the Const.: Foster, I, 27-60; Bryce, I, 
25-8; Wilson, State, 473-5; Cooley, Const. Limitations, 32 fE., 7 ff. 

2. Grotvth of the Constitution: Tiedeman, Unwritten Constitutions- 
Wilson (H. H.), Unwritten Elements of National Const.; Wilson (W.), 
Congressional Government; McConachie, Congressional Committees; 
Willoughby, American Constitutional System; Borgeaud, Adoption and 
Amendment of Constitutions ; idem, "Origin of Written Constitutions " 
in Pol Sc. Quart, VII, 613-32; Higgins, "The Rigid Constitution," in 
ibid., XX, 203-22. 



Section XVI. John Marshall and the Interpretation of 
THE Constitution. 

I. Characteristics of John Marshall (1755-1835). 

1, Parentage and early education. 

2, Services in the Revolution; as a soldier; as a judge 

advocate of the army. 

3. Legal education (1779-81). 

4. At the Bar, 1781-1801. 

a. State of Virginia law after the Revolution; Mar- 
shall's peculiar fitness for his task (Magruder, 
28 ff.). 

6. Personal appearance; style of speaking (Howe, 
Historical Collections, 266; Wirt, in Magruder, 
35-37; Gilmer, in Magruder, 66; Adams, U. S., 
1,193). 

c. Prestige as a lawyer; the case of Ware v. Hilton, 
1796 (3 Dallas, 199; Const. Hist, and Amer. Law, 
67). 

II. Public Services, 1782-1801. 

1. In the legislature, 1782, 1784, 1787; in the executive 

council, 1783. 

2. In the Virginia constitutional convention, 1788 (Ma- 

gruder, 57-87: three speeches, on taxation, militia, 
and judiciary (Elliot, III, 222, 419, 551-5). 

3. A member of the French mission, 1797-8. 

4. In congress, 1799-1801. 

5. Refuses appointment as minister to France, attorney 



UNITED STATES. 47 

general, judge of supreme court, and secretary of war 
(1796-1801). 

6. Became secretary of state. 

7. Appointed chief justice, January 31, 1801. 

III. Marshall and Jefferson. 

1. Marshall's ''Life of Washington" ; and Jefferson's Anas. 

2. Marshall and the inauguration of Jefferson (Adams, 

U. 8., I, 193). 

IV. John Marshall and the Settlement of the Constitution. 

1. Significance of his opportunity : what the constitution 

"might have been" through a different interpreta- 
tion. 

a. Complexity of his task. 

6. Popular sentiment regarding the constitution 
(Yon Hoist, I, 62-3, 83; Bryce, I, 223; Bancroft, 
, Constitution, II, 363 (Washington) ; Marshall, 

Washington, V. 33). 

2. He reveals the powers of the supreme court. 

a. Previous to 1801 less than 100 decisions by the 

court. 
6. Of these decisions, only six involved constitutional 
questions. 

1) Chisholm v. (Georgia, 1792-4 (2 Dallas, 419, 

480; Const. History, 70-1). 

2) Hollingsworth v. Virginia (3 Dallas, 378 ff.). 

3) Fowler v. Lindsey, 1799 (3 Dallas, 411). Cf. 

Marshall's decision in Osborn v. U. S. Bank 
(9 Wheaton, 846-859). 

4) Hylton v. U. S., 1796 (3 Dallas, 171). Cf. 

Pacific Ins. Co. v. Soule (7 Wallace, 433-4). 

5) Calder v. Bull, 1798, relating to ex post facto 

laws (3 Dallas, 386). 

6) Cooper v. Telfair, 1800 (4 Dallas, 14). 

In the last two cases, the court does not 
decide that it can declare unconstitutional 
laws void (see Const. History, 72-3, and the 
authorities there cited). Hay burn's case, 
1792 (2 Dallas, 410), illustrates the early 
timidity of the court {Const. Hist., 73-6). 



48 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

c. Immense number of Marshall's opinions, 1801-1835. 

1) In all, 1215 reported cases. 

2) In 1106 of these opinions are filed, Marshall 

rendering 519. 

3) Of these 1106 opinions, 62 involved constitu- 

tional points, Marshall rendering 36. 

V. Some Leading Decisions. 

1. Marbury v. Madison, 1803 (1 Cranch, 137). 

2. "Olmstead case": United States v. Peters, 1809 (5 

Cranch, 137; Hildreth, III, chap. xxii). 

3. Cohens v. Virginia, 1821 (6 Wheaton, 264). Cf. Martin 

V. Hunter's Lessee, 1816 (1 Wheaton, 304, 323, 362). 

4. McCulloch V. Maryland, 1819 (4 Wheaton, 416, 421). 

5. Osborn v. Bank of United States, 1824; Weston v. 

Charleston, 1829 (9 Wheaton, 738; 2 Peters, 440). 

6. American Insurance Co. v. Canter, 1828 (1 Peters, 511, 

542). 

7. Fletcher v. Peck, 1810 (6 Cranch, 87 135-40; cf. Has- 

kins, in American Historical Association, Papers^ V, 
395 ff.). 

8. Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 1819 (4 Wheaton, 

518 ; cf. Van Santvoord, Lives of Chief Justices, 394- 
98). 

9. Ogden v. Saunders, 1827 (12 Wheaton, 213). 

10. The Burr trial (4 Cranch, note B, 473; Adams, United 
States, III, 441-71; Robertson, Bii.rr Trial (Phila- 
delphia, 1808); Kennedy, Life of Wirt, 1, 161-206; 
Van Santvoord, 364-79). 

REFERENCES. 

Hitchcock, "Constitutional Development of the United States as 
Influenced by Chief Justice Marshall," in Constitutional History, etc., 
53-120; Story, Miscellaneous Writings, 183-200; Thayer (J. B.), John 
Marshall (Boston, 1901); Dillon (J. F.), John Marshall (Chicago, 
1903); Centennial Anniversary (Philadelphia, 1901), containing, 21-66, 
J. T. Mitchell's oration; Craighill, in his Virginia Peerage, I, 229-84; 
Flanders, Lives and Times of the Chief Justices, 279-550; Lodge, in 
his Fighting Frigate, etc. (New York, 1902); Phelps, in his Orations 
and Essays (New York, 1901) ; Libby, John Marshall (Brutiswick, 
1901); Draper, John Marshall and the March of the Constitution (n. 
p., 1901); Marshall (John), Writings on the Federal Constitution 
(Boston, 1830; Washington, 1890); Magruder, John Marshall (Boston, 
1885); Cooley, "Supreme Court," in Constitutional History, 27-52; 
Hart, Formation of the Union, 133-5; Carson, Supreme Court; Bassett, 
The Federalist System, Index; Channing, The Jeffersonian System, 
Index. 



CHAPTER III. 

ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 
OF SWITZERLAND. 



Section XVII. Preliminaries of Swiss Federal History. 

I. Character of the Available Literature. 

1. Bibliographies. 

Hart (A. B.), Introduction to the Study of Federal Govern- 
ment (1891), 45-7, 62-7, 185-87. An excellent bibliograph- 
ical-historical manual. 

McCrackan (405-16) and Vincent (228-39) give lists of au- 
thorities. 

Special Card Catalogue of the Department of Political Science 
and Sociology. 

2. Source books. 

Bluntschli (J. C), Vrkundenbuch : being vol. II of his Bundes- 

rechtes (1875). 
Gisi (W.), Quellenhuch zur ScJiweizergeschichte (Band I, 

1869). 

Oechsli (W.), Quellenhuch zur Schweizergeschichte (2d ed., 
^ 1901). Relates to institutions. 

Oechsli (W.), Quellenhuch zur Schweizergeschichte. Neue 

Folge (1893). Relates to Culture-History. 
Text of the Constitution. See later syllabus. 

3. Maps. 

Freeman (B. A.), Historical Geography, I, 268-76, maps XXV- 
XXXI. 

Droysen, Atlas, Plate 25. 

Century Atlas; maps in the standard atlases and encyclopae- 
dias. 

Maps in the works of Rilliet, Winchester, and Adams and 
Cunningham. 

4. General histories. 

Dawson (W. N.), Social Switzerland (1897). 
Dandliker (K.), Geschichte der Schweiz (3 vols., 1892-1902). 
The best work. 

Dierauer (J), Geschichte der schweizerischen Eidgenossen- 

schaft (Bd. I, 1887). An excellent book. 
4 (49) 



50 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Hug (L.) and Stead (R.), Switzerland, in Story of the Nations 
Series (1889). Best short work in English. 
Zschokke (H. and E.), History of Switzerland. Trans, by 
Shaw (1855). 

5. General works suitable for obtaining a comprehensive 

view of the whole course. 

Adams (F. O.) and Cunningham (C. D.), The Swiss Confed- 
eration (1889). 

Blumer (J. J.), Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte der schweizer- 
ischen Demokratien (2 vols., 1850-58). 

Blumer (J. J.), Handiuch des schweizerischen Bundesstaats- 
recht (1881). 

Bluntschli (,J. C), Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte der Stadt und 
Landschaft Zurich (2d ed., 1856). 

Bluntschli (J. C), Geschichte des schweizerischen Bundes- 
rechtes (2d ed., 2 vols., 1875). 

Bourinot (J. G.), Federal Government in Switzerland Com- 
pared with that of Canada (1890). 

Daguet (A.), Histoire de la Confederation Suisse (7th ed., 
2 vols., 1879-80). 

Droz (N.), Instruction Civique (1885). 

Dubs (J.), Droit Puhlique de la Confederation Suisse (2 vols.). 

Lowell (A. L.), Governments and Parties in Continental Eu- 
rope (2 vols., 1896). 

McCrackan (W. D.), The Rise of the Swiss Repuhlic (2d ed., 
1901). 

Moses (B.), The Federal Government of Switzerland (1889). 

Richman (I. B.), Appenzell (1895). 

Rilliet (A.), Les Origines de la Confederation Suisse (2d ed., 
1869). 

Riittimann, Nordamerikanisches Bundesrecht verglichen mit 
den politischen Einrichtungen der Schweiz (2 vols., 1867- 
72). 

Vincent (J. M.), State and Federal Government in Switzer- 
land (1891). 

Vincent (J. M.), Government in Switzerland, in Citizens' Li- 
hrary. 

Winchester (B.), The Swiss Republic (1891). 

6. Short accounts. 

Bluntschli, Theory of the State, 440-49; Freeman, Federal 
Government, Index; Bryce, American Commonwealth, II, 
Index at "Swiss Constitution and Government"; Cool- 
idge, in Britannica, XXII, 819-835; Freeman, in Fort- 
nightly Review, II, 533-48; or in Essays, I, 314-72; Mc- 
Crackan, "Six Centuries of Self-Government," in Atlantic, 
LXVIII (1891), 257-63; Moses, "Antecedents of Swiss Fed- 
eration," in Overland Monthly, XI (1887), 474-88; Wool- 
sey. Political Science, II, 208-23; Wilson, The State, 301- 
33; Vincent, "Study in Swiss History," in American Hist. 



SWITZERLAND. 51 

Association, Papers (1887), III, 146-164; idem, "Switzer- 
land, 1291-1891," in Nation (1891), LIII, 119-20; idem, 
"Municipal Problems in Switzerland," in American Hist. 
Association, Report (1902), I, 211-21; idem, "Switzerland 
at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century," in J. H. U. 
8. (1904), XXII, No. 5. 
Note. — The literature available in the Library, as noted in the 
"Special Card Catalogue," will be given as each particu- 
lar subdivision of the subject is reached. 

II. Characteristics of Swiss Federal History (Freeman, Fed- 
eral Governvnent, 271 ff. ; Dimdliker, I, 13-30). 

1. xVn example of slow and complex evolution. 

2. In its seven phases of development, it represents every 

variety of combination from the mere "pact" to the 
"Bundesstaat" on the American model. 

3. Consequently it discloses the weakness as well as the 

strength of the federal type. 

a. Subject territories of many varieties, often- sel- 
fishly ruled. 

&. Oligarchy and aristocracy versus democracy. 

c. Secessions as the result of the sentiment of state 

autonomy and factionlism. 

d. Highly developed local self-government with strong 

central authority (since 1848, 1874). 

4. Furnishes examples of city-states uniting with ti'ibal 

states. 

5. Furnishes examples of heroic struggle for free institu- 

tions (14th and 15th centuries) ;- and of dignified 
courage under French encroachments (18th and 19th 
centuries) . 

III. The Antecedents of Swiss Federal History, to 1291 (Mc- 
Crackan, 13-62; Winchester, 9-11; Moses, 1-14; Vincent, 1-7; 
idem, minor papers above cited; Rilliet, 3-94; Dandliker, I, 
31-388; Oechsli, 9-65). 

1. Ethnology and earliest notices ; lake dwellers. 

2. The Helvetians and the Roman occupation. 

3. Influence of Rome; Christianity introduced. 

4. The sway of Alamanni, Burgundians, Franks; com- 

munal institutions. 

5. Outline of events to 1291. 

a. Relations to Austria. 

Z>. Geography of Switzerland; ancient Burgundy. 



52 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Section XVIII. First Phase op Federal History : The 
League op Three Cantons, 1291-1332. 

I. The "Pact" of Uri, Schwiz, and Unterwalden. 

1. August 1, 1291 : The "eternal pact" of the three "Wald- 

statte (the text, in Oechsli, 65-66, Grerman; Win- 
chester, 473-477, the original Latin and in English; 
McCrackan, 87-89, English; Rilliet, 413-15, Latin; 
Vincent, 191-93; Biuntschli, II, 1-2, Latin). 

2. October 16, 1291: The "treaty" between Zurich, Uri, 

and Schwiz (text, in Oechsli, 67-8; Rilliet, 415-17). 

II. Rise of the Privilege of Reichsunmittelbarkeit or Im- 
mediate Dependence on the Empire. 

1. Uri: Charter of liberty of King Henry (son of Fred. 

II, d. 1242; K. of Romans), May 26, 1231 (Oechsli, 
,63; McCrackan, 76) ; confirmed by Rudolf of Haps- 
burg, 1273; rescript of Emperor Adolf, November 30, 
1297 (Rilliet, 419) ; confirmation by Henry VII 
{idem, 420). 

2. Schwiz: Charter of liberty of Emperor Frederic II, 

December, 1240 (Oechsli, 63-4; McCrackan, 79-80). 
Not enforced; therefore a league with Unterwalden 
formed against Count Rudolf of Hapsburg-Laufen- 
burg, 1245) ; this followed by the Bull of Innocent 
IV, August 28, 1247 (Oechsli, 64) ; Schwiz favored by 
Rudolf III of Hapsburg-Austria, 1273, who became 
emperor, 1273-91 ; rescript of Adolf, 1297 ; the charter 
of Frederick II confirmed by Henry VII, June 3, 
1309 (Oechsli, 93; Rilliet, 419-420). 

3. Unterwalden: liberated by Henry VII, June 3, 1309 

(Oechsli, 93; Rilliet, 421). 

III. The Battle of Morgarten, November 15, 1315. 

1. Causes of the uprising of the cantons (McCrackan, 

116-22; Vincent, 7-9; Biuntschli, Bundesrecht, 1, 
66 ff.). 

2. Description (Oechsli, 94-7; McCrackan, 123-26; Biunt- 

schli, I, 70). 

3. Results. 

IV. Renewal of the Pact of the Three Cantons, December 9, 



SWITZERLAND. 53 

1315 (Oechsli, 97-99; Rilliet, 425-28; Bluntschli, 1, 71-2, II, 
2-4). 

1. Analysis of the 19 sections. 

2. What new provisions important for federal constitu- 

tions? 

V. Peace between Cantons and Austria, 1318; annually re- 

newed, to 1323. 

1. Provisions (Bluntschli, I, 72-74). 

2. Feudal and manorial privileges of Duke Frederick of 

Hapsburg annulled and his subjects freed by Lewis 
of Bavaria, 1324. 

VI. Origin of the Swiss Confederation and that of the United 

States Compared (McCrackan, 111-115). 

REFERENCES. 

Rilliet, 53-165; McCrackan, 1-91, 111-128; Blutitschli, Bundesrecht, 
I, 62-76, passim, II, 1-4; Moses, 10-17; Adams and Cunningham, 1-5; 
"Winchester, as cited; Dandliker, I, 368-426, passim; Oechsli, as cited. 



Section XIX. The Second Phase of Federal History : The 
League of Eight Cantons (States), 1332-1353. 

I. Lucerne Enters the League, 1332. 

1. Location of the city and district in ancient Aargau; 

a fief of the abbey of Murbach in Elsass (Alsace). 

a. The abbot had feudal territoral rights and juris- 
diction in the Meyerhof (mayor's court). 

1). But the counts of Hapsburg, who were counts of 
Elsass, were (ca. 1239) granted the rights of 
Church- Vogt (general steward) for Lucerne; 
these rights were delegated to the nobles of 
Rotenburg who as Vbgte (local bailiffs) held 
police courts; and the Church- Vogt may have 
been represented in the city by a Schultheiss 
(local magistrate). 

2. How the constitution of the city grew out of these 

conditions: rise of the "Ammann" and the "Rath" 
or council ; the charter of 1252. 

3. All rights of the city sold to Austria (House of Haps- 

burg), 1291. 

4. The union of the four forest cantons, 1332 (Oechsli, 



54 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

117-19; compare Vincent, 9-10; Bluntschli, I, 77-87, 
II, 5-7; McCrackan, 129-135). 
5. The alleged conspiracy (Mordnacht) of 1343 (Mc- 
Crackan, 133-4). 

II. Zurich Enters the League, 1351 (McCrackan, 136-46; 
Bluntschli, I, 87-9G). 

1. The four constituent settlements of medieval Zurich 

(9th century onward). 

d. A comimunity of free Alamanni at foot of Zurich- 
berg. Subject to the Count of Ziirichgau. 

6. An imperial Pfalz (castle) on the Lindenhof; sur- 
rounded by dependents called fiscaUni. Subject 
to an imperial bailiff (Reichsvogt). 

c. A Miinster, with canons and cloister-school, on 

right bank of the Limmat, surrounded by de- 
pendents called ministeriales. Subject to a 
steward (Vogt). 

d. The Abbey of Nuns (Fraumiinster), founded 853, 

on left bank of the Limmat, with its dependents. 
Subject to a steward (Vogt). 

2. The city gains Reichsunmittelbarkeit and a more liberal 

constitution. 
a. The four settlements united under an imperial 

bailiff (Reichsvogt), first hereditary and then 

(after Frederick II, 1218) elective by the citizens 

from the burgher aristocracy. 
h. Rights of the abbess. 

1) Appointed a Schultheiss, a sort of police 

judge. 

2) Council or Rath of advisers chosen from the 

aristocracy. 

3) Large revenues. Commercial importance of 

the city. 
c. Zurich becomes a free city through the council 
mentioned, superseding the powers of the abbess 
and the Schultheiss and diminishing those of the 
imperial bailiff. The code or ''Brief of Rights," 
1304. 

3. The "Brun revolution" of 1336. 

a. The existing classes : nobles, free burghers, 
artisans and laborers. 



SWITZERLAND. 55 

6. The council of 36 ; common people not eligible and 
without vote. 

c. The uprising under Rudolf Brun, June 7, 1336 

(Oechsli, 119). 

d. The first democratic constitution or "sworn brief" 

of July 16, 1336 (Oechsli, 121-27; McCrackan, 
141-2; Bluntschli, I, 89). 

1) The Rath or council, chosen by the (1) Kon- 

stafel; (2) the 13 craft gilds. 

2) The Biirgermeister: chosen for life (first 

was Brun). Great powers. 

3) Sometimes a more popular assembly called. 

e. The conspiracy and the Mordnacht of February 23,^ 

1350 (Oechsli, 134-5). 
4. The Zurich league. May 1, 1351 (Bluntschli, II, 7-12^ 

Oechsli, 135-140). 
a. General provisions. 
T). The two dangerous clauses. 

III. League of Glarus, June 4, 1352 (Oechsli, 143-45; Mc- 
Crackan, 147-150; Bluntschli, I, 97-105, II, 12-16). 

1. Early history and institutions; physical geography. 

Relations to the Abbess of Seckingen; to House of 
Hapsburg (after Emperor Rudolf). 

2. Provisions of the league. 

a. General provisions. 

h. Provisions putting Glarus in an inferior position. 

IV. The League of Zug, June 27, 1352 (Oechsli, 145-46; Mc- 
Crackan, 151-3; Bluntschli, I, 106-109, II, 16-21). 

1. Provisions ; Glarus not a party to the league. 

2. Attack of the Hapsburgers and their allies; and the 

so-called "peace of Brandenburg," 1352 ; the power of 
Vogt of the Duke of Austria (Hapsburg) restored. 

V. The League of Bern, March 6, 1353 (Oechsli, 146-150; Mc- 
Crackan, 154-61; Bluntschli, I, 110-121, II, 21-26). 

1. Location ; old Burgundian land ; a military stronghold ; 

a free imperial city. 

2. Early history: city founded 1191, given the same con- 

situation as that of Freiburg in Breisgau : a Schult- 
heiss and a Rath of 12, freely chosen each year by the 
citizens. 



56 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

3. The "Goldene Handveste" of 1274: provisions (Mc- 

Crackan, 155). 

4. The new constitution; 1294-5: the "sixteen" and the 

"two hundred," latter chosen by former; artisans 
now eligible to the sixteen; gilds prohibited. 

5. Summary of events to 1353. 

a. General aim to create a republic of communities 

in the Aar valley. 
h. Various special leagues and wars. 
c. The battle of Laupen, June 21, 1339 (Oechsli, 127- 

133; McOrackan, 158-160). 

6. The Bern league; modeled on that of Zurich (Oechsli, 

146 fie) . 

REFERENCES. 

Besides the references above, see Vincent, 9-12; Adams and Cun- 
ningham, 5; Dandliker, I, 474-683; Bluntschli, Staats- und Rechtsge- 
schichte der Stadt und Landschaft Zurich. 

Section XX. Historical Development op the League op 
Eight Cantons, 1353-1480. 

I. Military and Other Significant Events. 

1. 1364 : Zug reconquered from Austria by Schwiz ; 

priest's charter, 1370. 

2. Invasion of the Gugler and the feud with Kiburg, 1375, 

1382 (McCrackan, 162-6). 

3. The battle of Sempach, July 9, 1386 (Oechsli, 155-63; 

McCrackan, 167-176). 

a. Causes: union with the Swabian league; hostili- 
ties begun by Lucerne and other federal states 

6. Description; the Winkelried legend. 

c. Results : the "evil peace," 1386-8. 

4. The battle of Nafels, April 9, 1388 (Oechsli, 164-68; 

McCrackan, 177-183; Dandliker, I). 

a. Causes: hostile action of Bern against Freiburg; 
of the other confederates ; rebellion of Glarus 
against Austria and its adoption of a constitu- 
tion. 

t. Description (see Oechsli). 

c. Consequence: seven years' peace; the "third sworn 
brief" of Zurich; the "Covenant of Sempach"; 
consolidation of the Swiss nation at the end of 



SWITZERLAND. 57 

two centuries of war with Hapsburg (McCraekan, 
181-3, 190). 

5. The liberation of Appenzell and St. Gallen, 1377-1412 

(McCraekan, 193-201; O^chsli, 171-75). 

a. In 13th and 14th centuries, St. Gallen a free city of 
the empire, with elective magistrates, an imperial 
steward (Vogt), and gilds on the Zurich plan. 

&. 1377, the Appenzell league (5 villages) formed and 
united with the Swabian league; gained a Rath, 
a Landesgemeinde, and an Ammann. 

c. 1401, St. Gallen and Appenzell make a 7 years' 

alliance, and open hostilities with Abbot Kuns 
von Stoffeln. 

d. 1403, Appenzell admitted to the Landrecht (limited 

citizenship) of Schwiz, receiving an Ammann 
from that state. Was the separate alliance un- 
constitutional? (Oechsli, 171.) 

e. The battle of Vbgelinsegg ( Speicher) May 15, 1403 

(Oechsli, 172-74). 

f. The battle of Stoss, June 17, 1405 (Oechsli, 174-75; 

McCraekan, 196-200). 

g. "League above the lake" formed under leadership 

of Appenzell. 

h. Defeat of Appenzell at battle of Bregenz, January 
13, 1408 (Oechsli, 176-7; McCraekan, 201). 

i. Appenzell enters a subordinate alliance with the 
Swiss Federation (except Bern), November 24, 
1411 (Oechsli, 177-179). 

/. St. Gallen admitted to a similar subordinate posi- 
tion, 1412. 

6. Liberation of Valais, 1375-1419 (Oechsli, 182) : Valais 

enters into perpetual citizenship with Uri, Lucerne, 
and Unterwalden, 1403, 1416; war with Bern, 1419. 

7. Liberation of Graubiinden (the Orisons), 1367-1436; 

relations with the Swiss Confederation? The three 
leagues ? 

8. Conquest and subjection of Ticino (Val Leventina) by 

Uri and Obwalden (part of Unterwalden), 1403, 1440 
(from the Duke of Milan) ; the first conquered terri- 
tory of the Confederation. 



58 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

9. Conquest of Aargau, 1415 (Oechsli, 179). 

a. Sanctioned by the Council of Constance (1414-18) 
and by the Emperor Sigsmund: The Church 
Schism? Pope John XXIII and Duke Frederick 
of Austria? 

6. How the land of Aargau was divided among the 
victors? The problem of joint control of sub- 
ject territory? 

10. The first civil war, 1442-4: Zurich in league (1442) 

with Austria against the other Confederates 

(Oechsli, 187-209). 
a. Causes. 

6. Various military events, 1443-4. 
G. Battle of St. Jacob on the Birs, August 26, 1444 

(McCrackan, 213-18; Oechsli, 202-211). 
d. The award of 1451. 

11. The war with Charles the Bold, 1474-77 (Oechsli, 230- 

53; McCrackan, 219-31; Kirk, Charles the Bold, 
III). 

a. Causes (Freeman, Essays, I). 

J). Events: Grandson, 1476; Morat (Murton), 1476; 
Nancy, 1477. 

c. 1460 : Thurgau conquered and conjointly adminis- 
tered. 

II. Development of the Constitution of the Confederation, 
1353-1480. 

1. Progress of alliances (McCrackan, 184-90, 219). 

a. Glarus gains equal state's rights, 1450. 

t. St. Gallen (abbey and town) admitted to closer 

relations, 1451, 1454 (Oechsli, 211-14). . 
c. Appenzell admitted to like relations, 1452. 

2. Great constitutional documents. 

a. The priest's charter or Pfaffenbrief, October 7, 
1370 (Bluntschli, I, 122-6; McCrackan, 104- 
65, 186-7; Vincent, 16; Oechsli, 152-55). 

1) Seizure of Peter Gundoldingen, Schultheiss of 

Lucerne, by Bruno Brun, provost of the 
Grossmunster, 

2) The "second sworn brief" or democratic 

amendment to the constitution of Zurich; 



SWITZERLAND. 59 

followed by an addition to the federal con- 
stitution. 
3) The priest's charter: provisions (agreed to 
by the confederates, except Bern and 
Glarus). 
a) Principle of the majority vote in con- 
stitutional amendments introduced. 
h) The term ^^Eidgenossenschaft" (confed- 
eration) first appears in a constitu- 
tional document. 
&. The convention of Sempach, July 10, 1393 (Oechsli, 
168-171 ; Bluntschli, I, 126-9 ; McCrackan, 
181, 188; Adams and Cunningham, 5-7; 
Vincent, 13). 

1) Origin (see above). 

2) Provisions : rights of belligerents and of 

citizens in time of war. 
c. The covenant of Stanz, 1481 (see next syllabus). 

REFERENCES. 

In general, consult Dandliker, I, 546-635, II, 11-249, and many 
documents Iti Oechsli, Quellenhuch, neue Folge (1893). 



Section XXI. The Third Phase op Federal History : The 
League op Thirteen Cantons, 1481-1798. 

I. Effects of the Burgundian War and of Sectional Jealousies. 

1. Threatened disruption of the league. 

2. The Diet of Stanz; and the ''covenant of Stanz," 

December 22, 1481 (McCrackan, 232-35; Oechsli, 

260-67). 
a. General provisions. 
6. Dangerous clause forbidding public meetings. 

3. Freiburg and Solothurn admitted to the league, 1481. 

II. War with the Empire (the "Swabian war"), 1499: Switz- 
erland Gains Practical Independence of the Empire and this 
Independence Formally Ratified in 1648. 

III. 1501: Basel and Schaffhausen Admitted as the Eleventh 
and Twelfth States in the League. 

IV. Switzerland Gains the Balance of Power in Europe. 
1. The Swiss as mercenaries. 



60 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2. The Italian war (war of the Holy league) : Novara, 

1513; Marignano (Melegnano), 1515. 

3. Appenzell admitted to the league, 1513. 

V. The Constitution of the League of Thirteen as it Existed 
before the Long Period of Strife and Decay (McCrackan, 
243-247; Adams and Cunningham, 10 ff.; Moses, 23-29; 
Bluntschli, I, 391-447). 

1. The elements of a nation with a compact territory. 

a. Practical independence. 

h. Perpetual peace with the Dukes of Austria. 

2. The territorial division (Bluntschli, I, 185 ff.). 

a. The 13 states or privileged members. 
h. The allies or Zugewandte Orte : each bound to one 
or more of the thirteen. 

1) St. Gallen, the abbey; and St. Gallen, the 

town (aristocratic republic). 

2) Bishoprick of Basel (under a Prince-Bishop). 

3) Principality of Neuch^tel (subordinate to 

Prussia, under a count). 

4) Bienne (Biel) : allied with Bern, 1352. 

5) Miihlhausen in Elsass: aristocratic republic. 

6) Kotweil in Swabia. 

7) The democratic republic of Valals. 

8) The democratic republic of Graubiinden. 

9) The republic of Gersau on Lake Lucerne, 

eventually incorporated with Schwiz. 
Note. — Geneva and Vaud not yet in direct re- 
lation with the league, 
c. The subject or protected lands, the Untertanen- 
liinde: administered by the states in various 
combinations. 

1) Aargau : administered conjointly by 8 states. 

2) Thurgau : administered conjointly by 10 

states. 

3) Eheinthal. 

4) Sargans. 

5) Gaster. 

6) Utznach. 

7) Morat. 

8) Grandson. 

9) Orbe. 



SWITZERLAND. 61 

10) Echallens. 

11) Bellinzona. 

12) Lugano. 

13) Locarno. 

14) Mendrisio. , 

15) Val Maggia. 

16) Abbey of Engelberg (Unterwalden). 

17) Wilchingen (Schaffhausen). 

18) Entlebuch (under Lucerne). 

19) Toggenburg (under Prince- Abbot of St. Gal- 

len). 

20) Val Tellina (Ger. Veltlin). 

3. Slow development of the Diets or Tagsatzugen and 

their functions (Moses 23 ff. ; Adams and Cun- 
ningham, 121). 

a. Composed of instructed delegates (germ of federal 
referendum). 

&. Unanimous vote for laws required. ' 

c. No power to execute laws. 

4. Common bailiwicks (e. g. Aargau and Thurgau) ; and 

the provisions regarding civil and foreign war con- 
cluded with Basel, Schaffhausen, and Appenzell. 

5. Other elements of national admifiisteration. 

6. Comparison with growth of the 13 American colonies 

(McCrackan, 246-7). 

VI. The Reformation and the Religious Wars and Their Re- 
sults (ca. 1500-1750). 

1. The influence of Zwingli (McCrackan, 251-63). 

a. As a political reformer ; his democratic principles. 

6. As a religious reformer. 

c. His influence on Zurich (1519-23). 

2. The reformation in St. Gallen under Watt (Vadianus), 

Basel, Bern (under Haller) ; in Thurgau, Glarus, and 
Graubtinden. 

3. War between the five Catholic cantons (Uri, Schwiz, 

Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug), against the Protestants 
led by Zurich and Bern. Battle of Kappel, 1531: 
death of Zwingli, who was superseded by Bullinger. 

4. Calvin at Geneva (1536-1564). 

a. Alliance of Geneva with Freiburg and Bern, 1519, 
1526. 



62 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

h. Farel at Geneva, 1532-35; independence of Geneva 
from Savoy, 1533-1535, throngh the aid of Bern. 

c. Calvin; his ''Institutes'' (Basel, 1536); his code 
and constitution adopted, 1541. 

5. Vaud conquered from Savoy by Bern, 1536. 

6. Appenzell divided, 1597: Inner- Rhodes, Catholic; 

Outer-Rhodes, Protestant. 

7. General results. 

a. National decay; Swiss independence by treaty of 

Westphalia, 1648. 
h. Development of aristocratic tendencies. 

8. The eighteenth century renaissance. 

a. The revival of learning (McCrackan, 289-94) ; in- 
fluence of Voltaire and Rousseau. 
6. The Helvetic revolution, 1798. 

1) Causes: policy of Napoleon. 

2) Results: overthrow of the league of thirteen. 

Section XXII. The Swiss Federation From the Helvetic 
Revolution to 1848 : The Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth 
Phases. 

I. The Helvetic Republic, 1798-1803 (McCrackan, 301-312; 
Adams and Cunningham, 13-14; Moses, 28-36; Bluntschli, I, 
448-59; Oechsli, 545-640). 

1. Character of the revolution. 

a. Napoleon's policy. 

1). Seizure of the Val Tellina (1797) ; and occupation 
of Vaud, which declared independence. 

c. Leaders of the Swiss in alliance with the French: 

Peter Ochs of Basel and F. C. La Harpe of Vaud. 

d. Defeat of the Bernese at Grauholz, 1798. 

e. Treachery of the French: looting of the cantonal 

treasuries; enormous taxes imposed (Oechsli, 
581). 

2. The constitution, April 12, 1798: first draft by Ochs; 

modeled on that of France (text in Oechsli, 583- 
595; see Moses, 28-36; Bluntschli, II, 305-22; 
Blumer, HancVbuch, I, 19-29.) 
a. General principles: popular sovereignty; repre- 
sentative democracy; free press; religious liberty; 
no hereditary powers; feudalism abolished. 



SWITZERLAND. 63 

h. Legislature: senate consisting of 4 delegates from 
each canton with the ex-directors; grand council 
chosen according to population; at first 8 from 
each canton. 

c. Executive: directory of five chosen by legislature; 

aided by four ministers appointed by the 
directors. 

d. Supreme court composed of one judge from each 

canton; cantonal courts; district courts. 

e. Cantonal government: appointive prefect, etc.; 

districts ; communes. 

f. Liberal provisions; subject lands abolished. 

g. The cantons rearranged. 

3. Ordinances: Swiss colors; uniforms, etc. 

4. Eesistance of the forest cantons under Alois Reding; 

resistance of Nidwalden, in battle of Stanz; work of 
Pestalozzi. 

5. Legislation; the alliance of August 19, 1799. 

6. War and anarchy, 1800-1803. 

a. The parties of centralizers and federalists : con- 
stitution practically ceased to be in force from 
beginning of 1800. 
6. Struggle between France and Austria in alliance- 
with Russia on Swiss ground ; valor of Suvaroff ; 
generalship of Lecourbe? of Massena? 
11. The Act of Mediation, February 19, 1803 (text in Oechsli, 
642-3; see also McCrackan, 319 ff.; Moses, 36-46; Blunt- 
schli, I, 460-78, II, 22-35). 

1. How and by whom was the constitution adopted. 

2. Nineteen cantons embraced in the confederation; the 

constitutions of these were revised by the act. 

3. Provisions of the constitution. 

a. Liberal principles. 

6. The 6 Vororte, each providing the Landammann 

or head of the confederacy in rotation, 
c. Provisions as to governmental departments. 

4. Switzerland virtually under French protectorate until 

defeat of Napoleon at Leipzig, 1813; then the Swiss 
Diet set aside the Act of Mediation ; but the six new 
cantons were retained (Oechsli, 649-65). 



64 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

5. Period of party strife and negotiations, 1813-15; con- 
ditions of "perpetual neutrality" proposed by the 
congress of Vienna, 1815, and accepted by the Swiss 
(Oechsli, 653; Bluntschli, II, 371-76). 

III. The "Federal Pact" or Bundesvertrag, August 7, 1815 
(Oechsli, 656-58; Bluntschli, I, 460-78, II, 358-68; Mc- 
Crackan, 320-37; Moses, 46-55; Vincent, 24-29; Adams and 
Cunningham, 15-16). 

1. How adopted ; applied to 22 cantons. 

2. Principle of state's rights accented; a mere Staaten- 

hund. 

3. Other general principles: territories and constitutions 

of the several cantons guaranteed; federal army; 
arbitration of interstate disputes; alliances between 
cantons not positively prohibited; no central ex- 
ecutive; but between sessions of the Diet the Btirger- 
meister of Bern, Zurich, and Lucerne, in turn, ad- 
ministered the government for two years each. 

4. General constitutional provisions. 

5. History of the pact, 1815-1848. 

a. Democratic reforms in the state constitutions, 

1830. 
6. December 27, 1830, policy of non-interference as to 

cantonal constitutions adopted by the Diet. 

c. Hence, in 1832, the Siehnerconcordat or first 

Sonderbund of seven cantons formed by the 
liberal party favoring stronger government in 
the separate cantons. 

d. The Sonderbund or League of Sarnen (Sarnen- 

bund) formed by conservatives of five cantons 
(1832-3) ; the members of this league withdrew 
from the federal Diet; but the league was dis- 
solved by force, 1833. 

e. Attempt to revise the constitution, 1833; events 

leading to the war of the Sonderbund, 1839-45. 

f. 1843-7: dissolution of the union: a Sonderbund 

of the Catholic cantons formed 1843-5; and the 
act of secession, December, 1845; but the rebel 
league was overthrown in the civil war which 
• followed (1847). Analogies between the Swiss 
and the American civil wars. 



SWITZERLAND. 65 

g. A commission formed a new constitution, Febru- 
ary, 1848. This constitution was amended in 
1865 and in 1874, bringing it to its present form. 

REFERENCES. 

On the period, 1815-48, see Bluntschli, I, 479-512. Important sources 
are: AmptUche Sammlung der Akten aus der Zeit der Helvetischen 
RepuMick (ed. by J, Strickler, 2 vols.); Tagellatt der Gesetze und 
Dekrete der Gesetzgebenden Rathe der Helvetischen Republik (6 vols., 
1800) ; Der Schweizerische Republikaner (ed. by Escher and Usteri, 
3 vols., 1798-9). See also Marsouche (L.), La Confederation Helvetigue 
(1890); Tillier (A. von), Geschichte der Helvetischen Republik (3 
vols., 1843); idem, Geschichte der Eidgenossenschaft wdhrend der 
Herrschaft der Vermittlungsakte (2 vols., 1845-6; idem, Restaurations- 
epoche (3 vols., 1848-50); idem, Zeit des sogeheissen Fortschritts, 1830- 
ISJfS (3 vols., 1854-55); Hllty (C), La Neutrality de la Suisse (trans, 
by Mentha, 1889); Van Muyden (B.), La Suisge sous le Facte de 1815 
(1890); Zschokke (H.), Denkwiirdigkeiten der Helvetischen Staatsum- 
walzung (3 vols., 1803-5); Dufour (G. H.), Der Sonderbundskrieg 
(1882); De Peyster (J. W.), Secession in Switzerland and in the 
United States Compared (1863); Esseiva (P.), Fribourg et le Sander- 
bund (1881.) 



Section XXIII, General Character op the Swiss Con- 
stitution. 

I. In Some Important Parts llodeled on the Constitution of 
the United States ; Influence of Bluntschli and Ruttimann. 

II. Plan and Scope of the Constitutional Instrument. 

1. The preamble. 

a. God in the constitution. 
6. General purpose. 

2. Chapter I. "General Provisions": comprises 70 

"articles," or over one-half of the document. 

a. Sovereignty of cantons and confederation; pur- 
pose of confederation. 

6. Powers granted or denied to the confederation. 

c. Powers reserved or denied to the cantons. 

d. Provisions constituting in effect a "bill of rights." 

3. Chapter II. "Federal Authorities" : comprises articles 

71 to 117 inclusive. 
a. Federal assembly (Bundesversammlung) ; its 
powers (art. 84-94). 

1) The national council (Nationalrath) : a rep- 
resentative body similar to the U, S. house 
of representatives (art. 72-79). 



66 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2) The council of states (Standerath) : a senate 
consisting of 44 members, two appointed by 
each canton (art. 80-83). 
6. Federal council (Bundesrath) : being the federal 
executive, consisting of seven members 
chosen everj three years by the two houses 
of the federal assembly in joint session (art. 
95-104); from these are chosen: 

1) President of the confederation. 

2) Vice-president of the federal council. 

c. Federal chancery (Bundeskanzlei) : at the head is 

the "chancellor of the confederation," chosen for 
three years by the federal assembly; is under 
direction of the federal council; and is in effect 
the general secretary of state (art. 105). 

d. Federal court (Bundesgericht) : to be organized 

under a federal statute (art. 106-114)\ 

e. Miscellaneous provisions (art. 115-117). 

4. Chapter III. Amendments of the federal constitution 

(art. 118-123). 
a. Complete amendments. 
6. Partial amendments. 

5. Temporary provisions. 

III. Preliminary Comparison of the Swiss and the U. S. Con- 
stitutions. 

REFERENCES. 

1. Text of the Constitution: McCrackan, 373-403; Vincent, State 
and Federal Government in Switzerland, 194-222; idem, Government 
in Switzerland, 40 ff., 175 ff.; Lowell, Governments and Parties, II, 
405-431; "Winchester, 44-52; Old South Leaflets, General Series, No. 18; 
Hart, Federal Government, 87-174 (the text analyzed in comparison 
"with three other federal constitutions) ; Publications of University 
of Pa., Political Economy and Public Law Series, No. 8 (1890); Dar- 
este, Constitutions Modernes, 1, 441-68. See also bibliographies of the 
texts in Hart, 64-65, notes, 185-187. 

2. Discussion: McCrackan, 346-353; Winchester, 42-4, 52-64; Moses, 
56 ff., 30 ff., 38 ff.; Adams and Cunningham, 25 ff.; Borgeaud, Adoption 
and Amendment of Constitutions, 273 ff., 291 ff., 300 ff.; Lowell, Gov- 
ernments and Parties, II, 180-82, 184 ff. ; Demombynes, Constitutions 
Europeennes, II, 304 ff.; Woolsey, Political Science, II, 208-23; Free- 
man, in Fortnightly Review, II, 533-48 (Oct., 1865) ; idem. Hist. Essays 
(o"n Presidency) ; Vincent, in Am. Hist. Association, Papers, III, 
160-63. 



SWITZERLAND. 67 

Section XXIV. The Federal Assembly (Bundesversamm- 
lung) or Congress (art. 71-94, passim). 

A. The National Council (Nationalrath) or House of Repre- 
sentatives (art. 72-9). 

I. Composition : 147 members at present ; one for each 20,000 
of population or fraction thereof upwards of 10,000. 

1. Each canton or half-canton has at least one representa- 

tive. 

2. Eligible: every Swiss of 20 who has the right to vote, 

except the clergy, the restriction being aimed at the 
Catholics. 

3. Not eligible : members of council of state and federal 

council and officials appointed by the latter. 

II. Elections. 

1. Members chosen every three years by direct vote ; abso- 

lute majority required for first two trials. 

2. Electoral districts; not to be composed of parts of 

different cantons. There are (laws of 1890) 52 dis- 
tricts with 1 to 6 members each. Question of a 
Gerrymander ? 

3. Who may vote: any Swiss of 20 who may vote in his 

canton. 

4. Exercise of the franchise may be regulated by federal 

law. 

III. Organization. 

1. Chooses a president and a vice-president for each ses- 

sion. 

2. The same person ineligible to these offices for two con- 

secutive regular sessions. 

3. These officers have casting vote; and they may vote 

as other members in elections. 

4. Compensation : four dollars a day and 5 cents mileage. 

IV. Two Short Sessions Elach Year (June and December). 

1. The debates : no stenographic reports. 

2. Languages used. 

3. Joint sessions: for what purposes? 

REFERENCES. 

See Adams and Cunningham, 38-43; Lowell, II, 211-214; Vincent, 
State and Fed. Govt., 38-9; idem. Govt, in Switz., 175 ff.; Moses, chap! 
iv; Winchester, 65-69; Demombynes, II, 320. 



68 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

B. The Council of States {Stdnderath) or Senate (art. 

80-83). 

I. Composition : 44 members, 2 from each canton, each half- 
canton sending one. 

II. Functions. 

1. No special powers; those of the two houses are co- 

ordinate. 

2. Why the council's influence has relatively decreased? 

Compare with U. S. senate. 

III. Control of the Cantons. 

1. Salary. 

2. Tenure : in practice varies from 1 to 4 years. 

3. Election: in practice, by the cantonal legislature or 

by popular vote; latter method growing in favor. 

REFERENCES. 

See Lowell, II, 208-11; Adams and Cunningliam, 43 ff.; Vincent, 
State and Fed. Govt., 39-40; idem, Govt, in Bwitz., 175 ff., Wincliester, 
69; Moses, chap, iv; Demombynes, II, 318. 

G. Powers of the Federal Assembly (art. 84-94, passim). 

I. In General Nearly Commensurate with those of the Con- 
federation. 

II. Legislative Powers (Lowell, II, 184-91; Moses, chap. iv). 

1. Ordinary. 

2. Extraordinary; what powers not exercised by U. S. 

congress (Lowell, II, 187). 

3. Restriction on power of taxation. 

4. Legislative powers increasing; how and why? 

III. Administrative Powers. 

1. Measures carried out by the cantons? 

2. Union of legislative centralization with administrative 

decentralization. 

3. Direct administration. 

IV. Elections: What Bodies Chosen in Joint Session? 

V. Supervising Powers (Lowell, II, 186-7). 

D. Procedure in Legislation. 

Vincent, State and Fed. Govt., 41-5; Adams and Cunningham, 45- 
53; Demombynes, II, 324 ff. 



Switzerland. 69 

Section XXV. The Federal Council (art. 95-104). 

I. Composed of Seven Members Chosen for Three Years by the 
Federal Assembly: The Executive Department (called 
Cabinet) . 

1. Who are eligible? Who not eligible? 

2. Vacancies, how and when filled? 

3. Quorum : 4 members. 

4. Virtually permanent in tenure (Lowell, II, 203) ; 

limited range of candidates; what cantons favored. 

II. Officers. . 

1. President of the confederation. 

a. Chosen for one year; not at once reeligible; has a 

salary from federal treasury. 
6. Duties.. 

1) As head of one of the 7 departments. 

2) Ceremonial functions as chairman. 

3) Supervisory. 

2. Vice-president of the federal council; salary; term; 

reeligibility? By custom, always chosen president. 

III. Distribution of Administrative Duties (law of 1887) ; 
division for convenience, but in theory joint action is re- 
quired. 

1. Foreign affairs. 

2. Justice and police. 

3. Interior. 

4. War. 

5. Finance. 

6. Industry and agriculture. 

7. Post-office and railroads. 

IV. Constitutional Functions, 

1. Judicial: in administrative questions (art. 85, sec. 12; 

102, sec. 2; 113). 
a. Relation of its judicial powers to those of the 

federal tribunal? 
6. Decisions sometimes arbitrary for political or 

other reasons (see Nation, October 15, 1891; 

Lowell, II, 196; Winchester, 91). 
c. Checks upon oppressive action. 

2. General executive and administrative functions. 



70 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

a. Relations with the cantonal authorities; methods 
of compelling obedience of cantons (Lowell, II, 
197; Winchester, 90-1; Adams and Cunningham, 
69-71). 

6. Relations with the federal assembly : in what 
sense a cabinet? 

1) No veto nor independent sphere of action; can 

be controlled by assembly. 

2) The report at each session. 

3) Right to speak and make motions in each 

house; and to initiate measures .(bills). 

4) As a rule, all bills in final form come from 

the council; what is the Postulat? (See 
Adams and Cunningham, 489; Lowell, II, 
198-9.) 

5) Effect of reversal of its policy by the as- 

sembly? Resignation? 

a) Have no parliamentary responsibility. 

6) Non-partisan; members from opposite 

parties; virtuallj^ an arbiter between 

parties. 

c) Need not agree in policy. 

d) Does not control policy of the state, that 

belonging to national assembly. 

6) Enumeration of constitutional duties. 

V. Real Importance of the Council; Advantages of the Swiss 
System (Lowell, II, 205-208). 

REFERENCES. 

Consult Lowell, II, 193-208; Winchester, 104-23; Adams and Cun- 
ningham, 54-65, Moses, 121-39; Vincent, State and Fed. Govt., 52-57; 
idem, Fed. Govt., 210-19; Demomhynes, II, 337 ff. 



Section XXVI. The Federal Chancery (Kanzlbi) and the 
Federal Tribunal (Bundesgericht. See art. 105-114). 

A. The Chancery (art. 105). 

I. Composition. 

1. At the head is the chancellor of the confederation 

chosen for 3 years by federal assembly. 

2. Subordinates (provided by law). 



SWITZERLAND. 71 

II. Duties. 

1. In the assembly. 

2. Other duties as general secretary, etc. 

B. The Federal Tribunal. 

I. Composition. 

1. Members and alternates chosen by the assembly, the 

three languages being represented. 

2. There must be a. jury for criminal cases (art. 106, 112). 

3. The term (6 years), number of judges (14), salary, and 

number of sections of the court determined by federal 
law. 

4. Who eligible; who not eligible. 

5. Held at Lausanne in Vaud. 

II. Jurisdiction. 

1. In private law. 

a. Civil suits; between confederation and cantons; 
between cantons; between persons and confedera- 
tion ; between canton and persons, if either peti- 
tions; other cases on request. 

&. Criminal cases. 

1) Crimes and political offenses. 

2) Minor offenses. 

2. In public law. 

a. Between cantons and the confederation; between 
cantons ; complaints of citizens regarding viola- 
tion of constitutional rights. 

h. But administrative cases reserved to federal as- 
sembly and federal council. 

3. The tribunal made by statute virtually a court of ap- 

peal. 

III. Comparison with U. S. Supreme Court (Lowell, II, 218- 
20). 

REFERENCES. 

Lowell, II, 214-220; Winchester; Adams and Cunningham, 66-75; 
Vincent, State and Federal Govt., 58-61; idem, Federal Government; 
Moses, 140-63; Demombynes, II, 343 ff. 



72 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 



Section XXVII. Amendments to the Constitution and 
Miscellaneous Provisions. 

A. Amendments. 

I. Complete Amendment. 

1. Secm'ed through the forms required for passing federal 

laws. 

2. Procedure when the houses do not agree; and when 

50,000 citizens demand. 
a. In either case, the question whether complete 

amendment shall take place is decided bj a 

majority of the Swiss citizens voting thereon. 
h. If the vote is in the afifirmative, a new assembly is 

chosen; and this prepares the amendment for 

submission. 

II. Partial Amendment (allowed since 1891). 

1. Secured through the forms required for passing a 

federal law. 

2. Secured by initiative through a petition of 50,000 Swiss 

voters. 
a. When presented in form of general suggestions. 

1) Procedure when the assembly does not agree 

to the petition. 

2) Procedure when the assembly agrees to the 

petition. 
J). When presented in form of a finished bill. 

1) Procedure when the assembly does not agree 

to the petition. 

2) Procedure when the assembly does agree. 

III. The Amended Constitution, Complete or Partial, Has 
Force When Approved by a Majority of the Swiss Citizens 
Voting Thereon, and by a Majority of the States. 

IV. Comparison of Swiss and U. S, Constitutions with Eespect 
to the Procedure and the Facility of Amendment. 

REFERENCES. 

Vincent, State and Federal Government, 49-50; Adams and Cun- 
ningham, 262; Lowell, II, 190. 



SWITZERLAND. 73 

B. Miscellaneous Provisions and Questions. 
I. Foreign Affair^ (Vincent, State and Federal Govt., 50-1, 
67-69; Moses, 164-188). 

1. Powers reserved to the confederation (art. 8) : war, 

peace, alliance, treaties. 

2. Powers by exception reserved to the cantons (art. 9, 

103). 

a. Treaties with foreign powers regarding administra- 
tion of public property, border and police inter- 
course, if not contrary to the confederation or 
rights of the cantons. 

6. But the official intercourse between cantons and 
such foreign governments shall be through the 
federal council; except correspondence with "in- 
ferior officials and officers of a foreign state," as 
to matters above named. 

3. Pensions, titles, gifts, salaries, or decorations from 

foreign governments prohibited; except continuance 
of pensions to "inferior officials" (art. 12). 

4. Political alliances or treaties between cantons for- 

bidden; but "conventions" (concordats) on legis- 
lative, administrative, and judicial subjects allowed; 
how these carried out? (Art. 7. See Adams and Cun- 
ningham, 256-259; Vincent, State and Federal Govt., 
50-1.) 

5. International neutrality guaranteed, 1815. 

a. No "military capitulations" (art. 11): i. e., no 
employment of Swiss as mercenaries by state or 
federal contract. 

1). No foreign titles, etc. (art. 12). 

c. Maritime neutral rights under treaty of Paris, 

1856. 

d. Seat of various international agreements (Win- 

chester, 430 fif.). 

6. Functions of the council ; how controlled by the federal 

assembly? Management of the "department" of 
foreign afifairs? 

II. The Army (art. 13-22; Adams and Cunningham, 140-161; 
Vincent, State and Federal Govt., 62-66; Moses, 189 ff.; 
Winchester, 226 fif.). 



74 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

1. Confederation may not keep up a standing army 

(art. 13). 

2. Standing force of each canton or half-canton, without 

federal permission, restricted to 300, besides mounted 
police (art. 13). 

3. Every Swiss bound to perform military service; but 

certain exemptions (art.- 18) ; cost of equipment? 
Pensions ? Exemption-tax ? 

4. Control in time of danger, discipline, organization, 

drill, and equipment of the militia belong to the 
federal government; military laws enforced by can- 
tonal officers, under federal supervision. 

5. Powers and privileges in hands of cantons (art. 19, 20, 

21. See Adams and Cunningham, 145-7). 

6. The organization of the citizen-army. 

a. Active force or Auszug: men from 20-32 years. 
h. First reserve or Landwehr : men from 32-44 years. 
c. Landsturm or second reserve : all others from 17-50. 

7. Characteristics of the Swiss military system. 

III. Federal Finance (Vincent, State and Federal Governr 
ment, 70-82; idem, Govt, in Sioitzerlcmd, 336 ff.; Moses, 
194 ff.). 

IV. Social Activities of the Confederation (Vincent, op. cit., 
82-96 ; idem, Govt, in Switzerland, 256 ; Adams and Cunning- 
ham, 33, 69, 25-37, passim; Moses, 247-9, 238-40, 226, 197; 
Dawson, Social Stoitzerland ; Dietler, ' "The Regulation and 
Nationalization of the Swiss Railways," in Annals, XIII, 
143-72, 291-322). 

1. Import and export duties. 

2. Industrial regulations; matches, gold and silver wares, 

etc. 

3. Factory and employment laws; accidents. 

4. Patents, copyright, life insurance; compulsory invalid 

and accident insurance (art. 34, 1890). 

5. Federal law of contracts and bankruptcy. 

6. Gambling houses forbidden by constitution (art. 35); 

lotteries, how dealt with? 

7. Capital punishment forbidden; state laws thereon? 

8. Posts, telegraphs, telephone, raihvays, bridges, high- 



SWITZERLAND. 75 

ways, weights and measures, coinage, divorce and 
marriage. 

9, Education: how divided between federal and state 

governments? (Vincent op. cit., 90-2, 182 ff . ; Adams 
and Cunningham, 189-209; Moses, 242; Winchester, 
253 ff.; Dawson, 243 ff.). 

10. Religion: (Vincent op. cit., 92-6, 173 ff, ; Adams and 

Cunningham, 162-188; Moses, 212 ff.). 
a. Constitutional safeguards of religious freedom; 

treatment of Jesuits and monasteries. 
&. Complexity of the Swiss sectarian problem. 
V. The Confederation and the Individual (Moses, 203 ff.; 
Vincent, op. cit., 97-101). 



Section XXVIII. State and Local Government. 
A. The Government of the Cantons. 

I. The State Constitutions and the Federal Constitution. 

1. Nature of state sovereignty; the states rights feeling 

slowly waning. 

2. Federal guaranty of the cantonal constitution: must 

be granted on what conditions (Lowell, II, 220-1; 
Const., art. 0) . 

3. Freedom of "revision" of state constitutions: how 

often in practice; effect as to similarity? 

II. In Two Cantons (Uri and Glarus) and Four Half-cantons 
(2 Appenzells and 2 Unterwaldens), Supreme Power is in 
the Landesgemeinde or Mass-meeting (Lowell, II, 221-26; 
Winchester, 148-64; Vincent, State and Fed. Govt.; Free- 
man, Growth of Eng. Const., chap. i). 

1. Description of the meeting; the procession; office of 

Landammann. 

2. Extent of functions. 

a. Tiusiness usually prepared by the council. 
&. On proper notice, the right of private initiative of 
measures preserved. 

1) In all cantons, except Glarus, vote must be 

yes or no without amendment. 

2) In all cantons, except Appenzell-Exterior, 

debate is allowed. 



76 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

4. The councils. 

a. The Landrath or Kantonsrath : a kind of sub- 
ordinate legislature. 

1) Chosen in electoraJ districts. 

2) Duties. 

6. The Kegierungsrath or Standeskommission. 

1) Seven members chosen by the Landes- 

gemeinde; sometimes this body is ex offtcio 
a part of the Landrath. 

2) Executive functions; chairman is the Landam- 

mann (White, in Am. Hist. Ass., Papers, III, 
163). 

III. In the Eighteen Cantons, Without the Landesgemeinden, 
the Governments Are of One General Type, Similar to 
that of the Confederation. 

1. The "great council" (sometimes called Landrath or 

Kantonsrath) : a unicameral legislative assembly 
chosen by universal suffrage. 

a. Chosen usually for three or four years; in Frei- 
burg, 5 years ; in Grisons, 2 years. 

&. Functions : laws, taxes, administration, appoint- 
ments. 

2. The executive council or Kegierungsrath. 

a. Chosen usually for three or four years. 

1) By the people (without districts) in IQi can- 

tons. 

2) By great council in 8 cantons. 

6. Composed of 5, 7, or 9 (Bern) members; minority 
representation (except in two cantons). 

c. Functions distributed among a corresponding num- 
ber of departments on the federal plan. 

3. Relation in powers of the two councils arranged on the 

federal plan; non-partisan; reports; postulates. 

4. Methods of dissolving the great council : why its 

tyranny dreaded? No veto; little judicial con- 
trol. 

a. By "recall :" procedure by initiative (petition of 
1 to 12 thousand) and referendum (7 German 
cantons) . 

Z). By constitutional revision through initiative and 
referendum. 



SWITZERLAND. 77 

c. Control by "proportional representation": in five 
cantons (first tried in 1892) : advantages of 
this method? 
rV. The Cantonal Courts (Adams and Cunningham, 125-139; 
Vincent, 139 &:). 

B. Local Government. 

I. The Districts: Uses? Not a True Governmental Division. 

1. Duties; administrative; represent the state. 

2, Officers and council. 

II. The Communes (Lowell, II, 235-6; Adams and Cunning- 
ham, 98-114). 

1. Control by the mass-meeting; distinction between Ein- 

whoner and Burger. 

2. The councils. 

a. One executive council in the communes of German 
cantons; chosen by the people (in Bern a presi- 
dent and at least four others). 

&. The French communes usually have each two 
councils. 

1) A larger body taking the function of the mass- 

meeting. 

2) A lesser executive council. 

REFERENCES. 

Adams and Cunningham, chaps, viii-ix, 98-139; Lowell, II, 220-37; 
Vincent, State and Fed. Govt., 105-121, 132-144, 157-172; idem, Federal 
Govt.; Winchester, 123-163, 174-191. For the government of particular 
states, see Demombynes, II, 354-486. Compare Woolsey, II, 214 ff.; 
Tyson, "Proportional Representation in Switzerland," in Arena, XXXIV 
(1905), 344-47. 

Section XXIX. Swiss Party Government. 

I. Party Issues, 1848-1874. 

1. General characteristics of parties and party questions 

during the period. 

2. Leading questions. 

a. Revolutionary refugees, 1848-50. 

T}. Military capitulations, 1848-56; radicals v&rsus 

conservatives or strict constructionists. 
G. Railroad question, 1852-64. 

1) Parties of state and private ownership; latter 
wins in establishment of the Thallinie. 



78 FEDERAL , INSTITUTIONS. 

2) Parties of monopoly versus competition: 
former called "railroad barons" and "cotton 
lords." The "Helvetia Society," 1858; the 
Alps railway. 

d. The Savoy question; its relation to the railway 

question. 

e. The question of revision, 1864-74. 

1) The treaty with France, 1864-1866: the ques- 

tion of settlement of Jews in Switzerland. 

2) Proposed complete revision, 1872; parties 

divided on race lines. 

3) Successful complete revision, 1874: two coun- 

cillors resign on the issue. 
II. Party Issues, 1874-1905. 

1. Regular party organizations developed. 

a. The right: Ultramontanes or clericals; most com- 
pact and best organized: has two sections, lib- 
erals and extremists. 

6. The centre, called liberal conservatives; successors 
to the railroad barons; opposed to paternalism; 
comprise conservative Protestants; less than one- 
fifth of assembly. 

c. The left or radicals: opposed to Catholics and 
orthodox Protestants; have majority in both 
houses. 

1) Older radicals: comprising .the section of 

socialistic Germans, who are in favor of 
broad construction; and the French section, 
favoring strict construction, and opposed to 
state interference. 

2) Democrats. 

3) Socialists. 

2. Comparison of party history during the two periods 

(before and after 1874). 

3. Relations of parties to the government: the Swiss 

government is not party-government; neither 
a. In the executive; nor 
h. In the legislative. 

4. No party machinery. 

a. No caucuses, national committees, nor conventions. 



SWITZERLAND. 79 

6. No national party leaders; local issues control 
federal issues. 
5. Stability of national and local parties (Lowell, II 
314-33). 

a. Good effects; comparison with American condi- 
tions. 

6. Causes of stability. 

1) Little patronage and no spoils. 

2) Mode of choosing: executive; effect of change 

to popular election? Compare with America. 

3) Effect of referendum: not used as party- 

weapon after 1884; how the call for refer- 
enda is organized; how it diminishes the im- 
portance of party ; relation of representatives 
to constituents ; rejection of laAVS takes place 
of change of parties. 

4) Character and traditions of the people. 

III. Comparison of Athenian, Swiss, and American Democ- 
racies (Lowell, II, 333-36). 

REFERENCES. 
Lowell, II, 301-36; Adams and Cunningham, 88-97; Winchester, 83. 



Section XXX. The Keperendum and Initiative. 

Lowell, II, 238 ff.; Vincent, Index; Adams and Cunningham, 76 ff., 
Index; Moses, 117-20; Winchester, Index. 

I. The Ancient Referendum. 

1. Absence of proper representation in the old league; 

character of the delegates to the diets ? 

2. Significance of the old commission of the delegates ad 

audiendum et i-eferendum. 

3. Institutions in the Orisons (to 1854) ; and in Valais 

(to 1839). 

4. The old referendum in Bern and Zurich. 
TI. Origin of the Modern Referendum. 

1. Influence of Rousseau. 

2. The constitutional referendum of American origin; 

appears first in Switzerland in 1802. 

3. The law referendum is of Swiss origin ; first, in form of 



80 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

veto, in St. Gallen in 1831; its rise in other cantons; 
to what is the institution due? 
4. Two kinds of referenda: 
a. Optional. 
6. Obligatory. 

III. Introduction of the Referendum. 

1. In the cantons : exists in all but Freiburg (Lowell, II, 

250-2, table), 
a. Obligatory. 

1) General. 

2) For financial measures. 

Z). Optional: sometimes financial measures excepted. 

2. In the confederation, 1874-1907. 

a. Obligatory on constitutional revisions, 
ft. Optional on laws. 

1) By petition of 30,000; or on demand of 8 can- 

tons; latter form not used. 

2) Urgent matters excepted: how defined in 

practice. 

IV. Use of the Referendum. 

1, Number and distribution of referenda. 

a. In case of federal laws (optional) and amend- 
ments (obligatory), 1874-1895 (Lowell, II, 
254 ff.). . 

6. In particular cantons. 

1) In German cantons. 

2) In French cantons. 

2. Character of the federal and state referenda (Lowell, 

II, 254-261). 
a. Proportion of negative votes. 
T). Tendency to reject radical measures; alignment 

of parties; progressive taxes; Maine's theory; 

labor and factory laws, 
c. Tendency to reject complex or too comprehensive 

laws, and those involving expenses. 

V. Criticism of the Referendum (Lowell II, 271-280; Hart, 
"Vox Populi in Switzerland," in Nation, LIX (1894), 193-4. 

1. Smallness of the vote; fines for failure to vote. 

a. In the states; examples of Bern, Basel, Zurich, 

Soleure. 
h. In the confederation (less than 60 per cent. vote). 



SWITZERLAND. 81 

2. Absence of popular discussion ; means of educating and 

spreading information. 

3. Lowering the sense of legislative responsibility. 

4. Swiss opinion; that of M. Droz. 

VI. The Initiative (Lowell, II, 280-92; Brown, "The Popular 
Initiative,'^ in Am. Jour, of Sociology, X, 713-749). 

1. Principle as compared with that of the referendum; 
relation to legislative will. 

2. Introduction in cantons. 

a. First by Vaud (1845) and Aargau (1852) without 
referendum. 

6. Then by Rural Basel (1863), Zurich, Thurgau, 
Soleure (all in 1869), with referendum. 

c. Now, all but Geneva for constitutional revision; 
and all but Lucerne, Freiburg, and Valais for 
laws; special restrictions in St. Gallen, Orisons, 
and Rural Basel (Lowell, II, 281 n. 5). 

3. Introduction only for constitutional revisions by the 

confederation, 1848, 1874; restricted to complete re- 
vision, 1880; but extended to partial, 1891. 

4. Procedure in each kind of revision of federal constitu- 

tion ; in the cantons usually presentation of a com- 
pleted draft forbidden. 

5. Working of the initiative. 

a. In the confederation. 

6. In the cantons; the case of Zurich. 

6. Criticism of the initiative (Lowell, II, 288-292; Brown, 

in Am. Journal of Sociology, X (1905), 713-49). 

VII. The Referendum in America (Lowell, II, 292-300; Ober- 
holzer. Referendum in America). 

1. Kinds of referenda in use. 

2. Objections to adoption of the general law-referendum. 

3. Advantages of the local referendum. 

REFERENCES. 

Oberholzer, Referendtum in America (1900); idem, in U. of Pa., 
PoUt. Econ. and Public Law Series, V, No. 4; Dicey, "Ought the Refer- 
endum to be Introduced into England?" in Contemp. Review, LVII, 
489-511; Brown and Hart, as above cited; Balfour, in Spectator, 
LXXII (1894), 188-89; Droz, "Referendum in Switzerland," Cont. 
Review (1895), 328-44; Lowell, II, 238-300; idem, "Referendum in 
Switzerland and America," in Atlantic, LXXIII (1894), 517-26; idem, 
Essays on Government, 76-8; Ell, "Direct Legislation in New Zealand," 
in Arena (1903), XXX, 268-72; Borgeaud, Adoption and Amendment 
6 



82 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

of Constitutions, Index, at "Initiative" and "Referendum," relating 
to many countries; idem, in Arena (1905), XXXIII, 482-86 (practical 
results in Switzerland); Moses, 117-20; Adams and Cunningham, 76 ff.; 
Vincent, State and Fed. Oovernment, Index; idem, Government; 
Winchester, 164 ff.; Demombynes, II, 331 ff.; McCrackan, Rise of 
Swiss Republic, chaps, ix, xii; idem, various articles in Special Card 
Catalogue; Bluntschli, 475 ff.; Cree, Direct Legislation (1902); Dep- 
loige, Referendum (1898); Curti (T.), Die Yollcsabstimmung (1896); 
idem, Geschichte der schweizerischenYolksgesetzgehung (2d ed.); Kloti, 
Die ProportionalwaJil in der Schioeiz (1901) ; Keller (A.), Volksinitiats- 
recht (1889) ; Stussi, Referendum und Initiative im Kanton Ziirich; 
idem. Referendum und Initiative in den Schweizerkantonen ; Ganzoni, 
Beitrdge zur Kenntniss des biindnerischen Refer endums ; Herzog (J. 
A.), Das Referendum in der Schioeiz (1885); Sullivan (J. W.), Direct 
Legislation (1892); Commons (J. R.), Proportional Representation 
(1896). 

In addition, many references are given in the Special Card Cat- 
alogue. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 
OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 



Section XXXI. Literature Available for the Course. 

I. Bibliographies. 

Hart, Federal Government, 188-18&. 

Bourinot, in Royal Society, XI, 94-100 (Appendix) ; idem, in 
Manual of Const. Hist.; idem, in 8tory of Canada. 

Brymner, in A. H. S., Papers, III, 395-407. 

Bradshaw, Self Government, 361-74. 

Coffin, Porvince of Quebec, 558-62. 

Eakins, in Library Journal (1902), XXVII, 248-251. 

Johnston, in A. H. R. (1899), I, 613-32. 

Wrong (G. M.) and Langton (H. H.), Review of Historical Pub- 
lications Relating to Canada, II-VIII. 

Special Card Catalogue of the Department of Political Science 
and Sociology. 

II. Source-Books, Documents, Reports. 

Houston (W.), Documents Illustrative of the Canadian ConstitVr 
tution (1891). 
. Pope (J.), Confederation Documents (1895). 
Federal Court, Reports (State Library). 
Dominion Parliament, Sessional Papers (State Library). 
Dominion Parliament, Statutes, printed in Sessional Papers. 
Statutes and Journals of each of the states (State Library). 

III. GeogTaphy. 

Lucas (C. P.), Historical Geography of the British Colonies (1891). 

Greswell (W. P.), Historical Geography of Canada (1890). 

Dilke (C. W.), Problems of Greater Britain (1890). 

Century Atlas; and other Standard atlases and wall-maps. 

Maps in the works of Clement and Rawlings below mentioned, 
and in the encyclopaedias. 

IV. Historical Manuals. 

Bryce (George), Short History of the Canadian People (1897). 
Clement (W. H. P.), History of the Dominion of Canada (1898). 

Good school history. 
Roberts (C. G. D.), History of Canada (1902). 
Tuttle, Short History of Canada (1878). 

(83) 



84 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

V. Works Suitable for Obtaining a Comprehensive View of the 
Whole Course. 

Bourinot (J. G.), Manual of the Constitutional History of Can- 
ada (rev. ed., 1901). Clear, trustworthy outline. 

Bourinot (J. G.), How Canada is Governed (5tli ed., 1902). A 
convenient manual on civil government. 

Bourinot (J. G.), Canada: Story of Nations series (1896). 

Bourinot (J. G.), Federal Government in Canada, in J. H. U. 8., 
VII (1889), 457-618. 

Bourinot (J. G.), Parliamentary Government in Canada, in A. H. 
A., Report, (1891), 309-407. Contains a bibliography. 

Bourinot (J. G.). Parliamentary Procedure and Practice (2d ed., 
1892). 

Bourinot (J. G.), Procedure (1894). Abridgement of Ms larger 
work. Compare Watson (S. J.), Powers of Canadian Parlia- 
ment (1880); and Macy, Parliamentary Procedure. 

Bourinot (J. G.), Canadian Studies in Comparative Politics, in 
Royal Society of Canada (1893), XI, sec. 2, 77-94; and bound 
separately. 

Bourinot (J. G.), Canada and the United States, in A. H. A., 
Papers (1891), V, 275-333. See also bis articles on the sub- 
ject in Annals of Am. Acad. (1890), I, 1-25; and Forum (1898), 
XXV, 329-40. 

Bourinot (J. G.), Canada and England, in Royal Society of Can- 
ada (1890), VIII, sees. 2, 3. See on similar subjects his ar- 
ticles in Forum (1901), XXXI, 1-14; Royal Society (1888), 
III, sees. 2, 3; Contemp. Rev. (1892), LXII, 590-608; Canadian 
Magazine (1897), IX, 93-101. 

Bourinot (J. G.), Canada and Australia, in Royal Society (1895), 
I, sec. 2. 

Bourinot (J. G.). For his other books and articles, see Special 
Card Catalogue. 

British America (by various writers, 1900). 

Lefroy (A. H. F.), Law of Legislative Power in Canada (1897-8). 

McLean (S. J.), Tariff History of Canada (1895). 

Munro (J. E. C), Constitution of Canada (1889). Good legal and 
constitutional treatise. 

Siegfried (A.), Le Canada (1906). 

Teece (R. C), A Comparison Between the Federal Constitutions 
of Canada and Australia (1902). 

Todd (A.), Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies 
(2d ed., 1894). An able and monumental treatise. For Can- 
ada, see especially 432-624. 

VI. other General and Special Works Important for the 
Course. 

Bradshaw (F.), Self -Government in Canada (1903). On Durham 

and his Report; has historical sketch of preceding period. 
Coffin (Victor), The Province of Quehec (1896). 



CANADA. 85 

Cooper (J. A.), "The Canadian. Premier and the U. S. President," 

in Canadian Magazine (1893-4), II, 415-21. 
Cotton (J. S.) and Payne (E. J.), Colonies and Dependencies 

(1883), Part II. 

Davidson (J.), "England and her Colonies, 1783-1897," in Pol. 8c. 
Quart. (1899), XIV, 39 ff., 211-39. 

Douglas (J.), Canadian Independence and British Imperial Fed- 
eration (1894). 

Durham (Earl of), Report (1901, 1905). Important source. 
Egerton (H. E.), Short History of British Colonial Policy (1897). 
Index at "Canada." 

Garnet (R), "Authorship of Lord Durham's Canada Report," in 
Eng. Hist. Review (1902), XVII, 268-75. 

Griffin (M. J.), "Did Lord Durham write his own Report?" in 
Canadian Magazine (1896), VII, 520-3. For other articles on. 
the Report, see Egerton and Shaw in Special Card Cata- 
logue; also in same the articles in Democratic Rev. (1839), 
V, 542-79; Nineteenth Century (1901), L, 12-20; Dublin Uni- 
versity Magazine (1839), XIII, 355-68; Westminster Review 
(1838-9), XXXII, 241-60. 

Hodgins (T.), British and American Diplomacy (1900). 

Jetikyns (H.), British Rule and Jurisdiction Beyond the Seas 
(1902). Index at "Canada." 

Leacock (S.), Greater Canada (1907). Pamphlet. 

Lewis (G. C), Government of Dependencies (1891). 

Macy (J.), Parliamentary Procedure. 

Rambaut (T. D.), "The Hudson's Bay Half-Breeds and Louis 
Riel's Rebellion," in Pol. Sc. Quart., II (1887), 135-96. 

Rawlings (T.), Confederation of the British North American Col- 
onies (1865). 

Smith (G.), Canada and the Canadian Question (1891). 

Snow (A. H.), Administration of Dependencies (1902). 

Stewart, Canada and the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin 
(1878). 

"Williams (J. S.), Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party (2 
vols., 1904). 

VII. Short Accounts. 

Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II, 255-57; Hart, 
Federal Government, 75-76; Statesman's Year Book; Bryce 
(G.), in Winsor, Narrative and Critical History, VIII, 131-40; 
Seeley, Expansion of England, 151-60; Dicey, Laio of the Con- 
stitution. 152-54; Lalor, Cyclopaedia, I, 827; Reade, "Making of 
Canada," in Royal Society, Transactions (1884), II, sec. 2; 
Dareste, I, 354; Bryce (J.), Commonwealth, Index; Mather, 
in Atlantic (1880)^ XLVI, 56-57; Acland, Political History of 
England, Index at "Canada;" Amos, Fifty Years of the Con- 
stitution, Index; Bourinot, "Canada during the Victorian Era," 
in Royal Society, III, sees. 2, 3; idem, "British Rule in the 
Dominion of Catiada," in Forum, XXXI, 1-14; Jebb, Studies 
in Colonial Nationalism (1905), Index at "Canada;" Hincks, 
"The Crown and the Cabinet in Canada," in Nineteenth Cen- 



86 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

tury (1878), IV, 423-31; Parkin, Imperial Federation (1892), 
chaps, v-vii; Love, "Canadian Form of Government, in Forum 
(1889), VII, 645-58; Payne, History of European Colonies, In- 
dex; Wilson, The State, 428-32; Wilson (D.), "Canada," in Bri- 
tannica, IV, 675-91; Tupper,"Canada's International Status," in 
Canadian Maga-^ine (1898), XI, 409-12; Stanwood, "Canada 
and the British Connection," in Atlantic (1884), LIV, 839-48; 
Reinsch, Colonial Government, Index. See the many articles 
in the Special Card Catalogue. 

Section XXXII. The Struggle for Free Institutions in 
Canada, 1763-1837. 

I. The Establishment of the Original Five Provinces ; the first 
three are the so-called "maritime provinces." 

1. Nova Scotia: part of French Acadie; acquired by Eng- 

land, 1731; gained a legislative assembly, 1758; until 
1784 it included New Brunswick and Cape Breton, 
the latter called Isle Royale by the French and gained 
by England, 1763; and until 1769 it included Prince 
Edward {called "St. John"). Cape Breton was a 
separate province 1784-1820; thereafter, permanently 
reunited with Nova Scotia. 

2. Prince Edward (St. John until 1799) : made a separate 

province 1769 ; got an elective assembly 1773. 

3. New Brunswick: made separate province 1784; first 

settled by "United Empire loyalists." 

4. Lower Canada : so-called under act of 1791 ; part of 

"Quebec," 1763-1791; part of "Canada," 1840-1867; 
since 1867, again called "Quebec." 

5. Upper Canada: so-called, 1791-1840; part of Quebec, 

1763-1791; part of "Canada," 1840-1867; since 1867, 
called "Ontario" ; founded mainly by "United Empire 
loyalists." 

II. GHovernment of Old Quebec Province, 1763-1791: Begin- 
nings of Representative and Legislative Institutions (Bouri- 
not, Eow Canada is Governed, 12; idem, Parliamentary 
Government, 312 ff. ; idem, Const, Hist., 5-19). 

1. The proclamation of George III, 1763 (Houston, 67-73; 

Macdonald, Select Charters, 267). 
a. Quebec, the two Floridas, and Grenada made 

provinces; limits of Quebec? 
6. Provisions regarding Indian lands and forbidding 



CANADA. 87 

western settlement (see Howard, Preliminaries 
of Revolution, 229 ff. ; Alden, New Governments) . 

c. Administered by a governor (Murray, 1764-68; 

Carleton, 1768-78; Haldimand, 1778-1786; Carle- 
ton, 1786 ff.) and a council appointed by him; 
there were also a chief-justice and attorney- 
general. 

d. Why were the French laws retained, and an as- 

sembly not called? (See Coffin, Province oif 
Quebec, and his Quebec Act.) 

2. The Quebec act, 1774. 

a. How regarded by the 13 colonies; assertions of the 

Declaration of Independence not sustained by 
the acts (Howard, 276-79; Coffin, in A. H. A., 
Report, 30 ff.; Clement, 99-102, 117,121). 

b. How regarded by the French Canadians. 

c. Provisions: boundaries; laws, criminal and civil; 

clergy and religion (Catholics) ; government by 
a legislative council appointed by the crown (17 
to 23) ; why no elective assembly granted? (Cof- 
fin, Province of Quebec; Howard, 277 ff. ; Clement, 
100-1; Bourinot, Const. Hist., 9-13.) 

3. Abuses of government during the period, 1763-1791. 

a. Oppression of the French population by the small 

English minority : rule of needy and greedy 
office-holders and "450 contemptible sutlers and 
traders" (Carleton). 
6. Bad effects of the navigation laws. 

c. Absentee office-holders appointed by Lord George 

Germain. 

d. Corrupt councils organized a pacte de famine 

(Clement, 118). 

e. Public education neglected. 

Ill, Character of the Government of the Maritime Provinces 
(Bourinot, How Canada is Governed, 27). 
1. Abuses in administration and policy. 

ff. In Cape Breton, English monopoly forbade work- 
ing of coal deposits. 

b. Land-grabbing in Prince Edward, 1767 ff. (Clem- 

ent, 105). 

c. Manufactures discouraged. 



88 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2. No written constitution; their institutions compared 
with those of the two Ganadas ; their forms of govern- 
ment (Bourinot, op. cit., 27-31). 

IV. Development of Representative. Institutions in the Two 
Ganadas under the Gonstitutional Act of 1791. 

1. Provinces of Lower and Upper Ganada created by 

division of Quebec. 

2. Government (Glement, 128-135; Bourinot, How Canada 

is Governed^ 19 ff. ; idem<, Parliamentary Govern- 
ment, 314-15; idem, Const. Hist., 13-24). 
a. Executive: the crown represented in Lower 
Ganada by governor and in Upper Ganada by 
a lieutenant-governor, with absolute veto, aided 
by an executive council who often had seats in 
the legislative council; comprised heads of de- 
partments, and, in Lower Ganada, the chief 
justice, another judge, and the Anglican bishop. 
6. Parliament: consisting in each province of 
1) The crown. 
, 2) The legislative council, appointed by crown 

for life; comprising judges, members of 

North- West Gompany, etc. (Glement, 191) ; 

in Upper Ganada, the bishop and archdeacon. 
3) Elective assembly: not less than 50 members 

in Lower Ganada; nor less than 16 in Upper; 

restricted franchise and legislative powers. 

c. Gourts. 

d. Other provisions: tithes; "clergy reserves"; legal 

system left to the determination of the as- 
semblies. 

3. Abuses of government before the Revolution of 1837. 

a. The "old colonial system" in the Ganadas; rule of 
Downing street; board of trade and the colonial 
secretary (1794) ; vicious policy of the colonial 
office prevents self-government; governor's 
powers controlled by the colonial secretary. 

6. Golonies exploited through extortionate fees and 
large salaries for non-resident office-holders 
(Glement, 188). 

c. The "family compact" : universal graft for the 
magnates favored by bad election laws (Glement, 



CANADA. 89 

190) ; and by the composition of the legislative 
council. 

d. Legislative oppression; lack of proper control of 
revenues. 
4. Varieties of graft and illustrative evidences of bad 
government. 

a. Land-gi'aft in Lower Canada before 1812 (Clement, 
146-7) . 

6. Reign of terror under Governor Craig, 1807-11: 
oppression of the French; assembly tries to ex- 
clude judges; arrest of Bedard, Papineau, and 
other leaders (Bradshaw, 46 ff.). 

c. Bad educational and oppressive marriage laws in 

Upper Canada. 

d. Public works graft and land-grafts after 1812; 

highway-graft. 

e. "Family compact" in the courts. 

/. Abuse of the law of criminal libel; persecution of 
Robert Gourlay, 1817-19; of the editors, 1828- 
1835 ; cases of Joseph Howe and Lyon Mackenzie 
(Clement, 193-200). 

g. Petty. tyranny for political purposes. 

h. Seditious meetings act, 1818; case of Captain 
Matthews, 1825. 

i. Religious liberty denied; the struggle for it (Clem- 
ent, 200-207; bigoted policy of the Anglican 
church. 

REFERENCES. 
Houston, Const. Documents, 67-78 (Proclamation), 90-96 (Quebec 
Act), 112-145 (Const. Act); Davidson, in Pol. 8c. Quarterly (1899) 
XIV, 39 ff., 211 ff.; Clement, Hist, of Canada, 94-237; Roberts History 
of Canada, 176-181, 198 ff., 208-219, 257-292; Bourinot, How Canada is 
Governed, 15-32; idem, Const. Hist., 5-23; idem, Parliamentary Gov- 
ernment, 311-316; Bradshaw, 25-89; Durham, Report, Table of Contents- 
Todd, Index; Bryce (G.), Short History. 225-32, 248 ff., 261 ff. 298 ff' 
especially 357-379; Greswell, British Colonization, 74 ff- Egerton 
Bhort History, 243-55, 302 ff.; Tarring, Law Relating to the Colonies 
38 ff. See many articles in the Special Card Catalogue. 

Section XXXIII. The Rebellion of 1837, Lord Durham^s 

Report, and Responsible Government, 1840-1867. 
I. Fundamental Causes of the Uprising. 

1. Wrong colonial policy. 

2. Bad government (see preceding syllabus). 



90 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

II. Proximate Causes of the Uprising. 

1. In Upper Canada, the struggle for secularization of 

the "clergy reserves"; controversy between Strachan 
and Ryerson; substance of the various bills, 1828- 
1835; effect of the endowment of the 44 new rectories, 
1835; substance of the act settling the controversj, 
1840. 

2. In Lower Canada, charges against the judges; the 

struggle to control the entire civil-list (revenue) ; 
interference of the British parliament by the "Canada 
Trade Act" (Clement, 210-11). 

3. All supplies refused by the assembly of Lower Canada, 

1827; struggle with Governor Dalhousie; counter 
petitions; executive oppression. 

4. Report of the committee of the house of commons, 

1828; not acted upon by parliament; but ac- 
cepted as guiding policy by the colonial office. 

a. The condition, a permanent civil-list, rejected in 
Lower Canada. 

6. The condition adopted in Upper Canada : the 
"Everlasting Salaries Bill." 

c. Other reforms recommended by the report carried 

out by Kempt (1829-30) in Lower Canada; five 
years's deadlock, 1832-7; Papineau and Neilson 
leaders of two divisions of the reform party. 

d. In Upper Canada: expulsion of Lyon McKenzie, 

1831-3; but the record of expulsion expunged, 
1834; the Seventh Report (1834); the "Family 
Compact," led by Lieutenant-Governor F. B. 
Head, victorious, 1836; the "Bread-and-Butter 
Parliament," 1836-7. 
c. Report of the Imperial Commissioners, 1837. 

1) In character reactionary. 

2) Russell's resolutions denying responsible gov- 

ernment (March, 1837). 

III. The Revolt. 

1. Lower Canada: precipated by the attempt to arrest 

Papineau and other leaders: fights at St. Denis, St. 
Charles, and St. Eustache; the rebellion crushed. 

2. In Upper Canada : failure of the plan to take Toronto : 

rebellion put down. 



CANADA. 91 

3. Keign of terror and punishment of the insurgents; 
constitution of Lower Canada suspended, 1838 ; Louni 
and Matthews (Upper Canada) executed. 

IV. Lord Durham and His Eeport. 

1. Character and previous career of Durham. 

2. His course in Canada; why he resigned? 

3. Substance of his report; called the "Great Charter" of 

Canada. 

4. Question of authorship (see references in sec. XXXI. 

above; and in the Special Card Catalogue). 

V. Government of United Canada, 1840 (Act of 3 and 4 Vic- 
toria, chap. 35; text in Houston, 149-85). 

1. The legislature. 

a. Legislative council : at first not less than 20 mem- 
bers to be appointed for life by governor in 
king's name, but made elective, 1856 (Houston, 
177-9, 182) ; speaker appointed in same way ; but 
choice left to determination of legislature, 1859, 
and made elective, 1860. 

6. Legislative assembly; 42 members from each of 
two old provinces, but increased to 65 in 1853; 
quorum, 20; qualification, 500 pounds. 

2. Executive. 

0. Governor; powers of governor and crown respec- 
tively. 

6. Executive council or cabinet (Houston, 167-8) • 
8 members; made responsible, 1847-8. 

3. Courts. 

4. Revenues. 

VI. The Establishment of Real Responsible Government, 1849 
(see especially Leacock, in Am. Political Science Revieiv. I, 
355-92) . 

VII. Progress of Responsible Government, 1849-1867. 

1. In the maritime provinces (Clement, 255-274, 294-9, 

passim). 

2. In Canada (Clement, 274-94; Bourinot, Const. Hist.. 

30-37). 

REFERENCES. 

In addition to the above citations, see Bourinot, Federal Govern- 
ment, 474-484; the works of Bryce, Bradshaw, Roberts, and Durham's 



92 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Report. For the whole period covered by the preceding outlines, there 
are interesting illustrations of parliamentary government in Mat- 
thews, Powers of Canadian Parliaments (1880), 9-46; Smith, Canada 
and the Canadian Question, 121 ff. The best treatment of the struggle 
for real responsible government is Leacock (S), "Responsible Gov- 
ernment in the British Colonial System," in Am. Political Science 
Review, I, 355-92. Consult also the articles of Davidson above cited. 



Section XXXIV. The Origin op the Federal Constitution 

OF Canada. 

I. Preliminaries of the Federation. 

1. Early suggestions and discussions. 

a. The question of federal or legislative union, 1840 
(Durham, Report ^ 116-21; Bradshaw, Index at 
''Union of the Canadas") ; the convention in 
Quebec, 1839. 

h. The demand for a "double majority"; how far in 
practice carried out? (Bourinot, Const. Hist., 
38-9.) The double or coalition premiership: one 
premier for each race (Smith, Canada and the 
Canadian Question, chap. vii). 

0. Upper Canada demands proportionate representa- 
tion according to population; this leads nearly 
to legislative deadlock between the two sections, 
1862-1864. 

2. Else of a sentiment for federation. 

a. Resolutions in favor by assembly of Nova Scotia, 
1854-1861 (Bourinot, Builders of Nova Scotia, 
App. I and J; idem, Const. Hist., 40-1; Roberts, 
342). 

6. Expediency of union favored by Cartier-Macdonald 
government, 1858. 

c. Proposed legislative union of the maritime prov- 
inces; convention of these and Canadian min- 
isters at Charlottetown decides to consider, in a 
meeting at Quebec, the feasibility of a general 
union. 

II. The Quebec Conference (constitutional convention), 
October 10 to October 28, 1864 (see the bibliographical note 
on the origin of the federation in Bourinot, Const. Hist., 41, 
n. 2; and Rawlings, 3 ff.). 

1. Composed of 33 delegates: 12 from Canada (6 for 



CANADA. 93 

each section), 7 from New Brunswick, 5 from Nova 
Scotia, 7 from Prince Edward, 2 from Newfoundland. 

2. Each province had one vote. 

3. Proceedings with closed doors. 

4. The debates (Pope, Confederation Documents; Bouri- 

not, Canada under British Rule, chap, viii; Pope, 
Life of Macdonald). 

III. Proceedings in the Legislature of Canada, February 3 
to March 14, 1865. 

1. Debate on the "seventy-two resolutions" submitted by 

the conference (the text is in Rawlings, 205-211). 

2. Address to the queen favoring union adopted by vote 

of 45 to 15 in legislative council, and of 91 to 33 in 
assembly. 

3. Similar addresses from two other provinces. 

IV. The Westminster Palace Conference, December, 186G. 

1. Proceedings on the proposed union in New Brunswick 

and Nova Scotia; refusal of Newfoundland and Prince 
Edward. 

2. Conference at Westminster arranged minor terms re- 

lating to the financial interests of the four provinces. 

V. Proceedings in the Imperial Parliament. 

1. Plan of union submitted February 12, 1867. 

2. Character of the debates; plan favored by leaders of 

all parties. 

3. Royal assent March 29, 1867. 

4. Royal proclamation. May 22, 1867, declaring the four 

provinces (including Quebec and Ontario) one do- 
minion from July 1, 1867; and naming the first 
senators. 

VI. The New Provinces and the New Territory (Bourinot, 
How Canada is Governed, 35-41). 

1. Acquisition of unorganized territory. 

a. Constitutional provision for admission of new 
provinces (sec. 146 of the act). 

h. Purchase of Rupert's Land and the Northwest 
Territory from the Hudson's Bay Company, 
1869; actual transfer, 1869-70; Louis Riel's Half- 
Breed rebellion (Pope, Macdonald, II, 49-55; 



94 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

BoTirinot, Const. Hist., 43-5; idem, Canada under 
British Rule, 227-8 ; Roberts 358, 361. See Bryce, 
Clement, and Rawlings, and Eambaut, in Pol. 
Sc. Quart., II, 135-196). 
c. These lands made part of the Dominion by an order 
in council, June 30, 1870, to take effect July 15, 
1870; all other British North American terri- 
tories, except Newfoundland, added to the Do- 
minion, 1880. 

2. New provinces admitted. 

a. Manitoba, 1870. 

6. British Columbia, 1871. 

c. Prince Edward, 1873. 

d. Alberta and Saskatchewan, July, 1905 (Revised 

Statutes of Canada, 1906, IV, 3183 ff. See Cram's 
Standard Am. Atlas, 1906, pp. 482-3). 

3. The territories (since 1905. See Revised Statutes^ II, 

1151-73, 1175-1219). 

a. The North- West Territory : governed by a commis- 
sioner and a council of 4. 

h. The Yukon Territory: governed by a commissioner 
and an executive council of 10, 5 being elected. 

4. Newfoundland still declines to enter the union; effect 

of the French concessions? 

5. Creation of new provinces from unorganized territory 

(see act of 1871 in Bourinot, Const. Hist., 231-2. For 
the nine "Districts" before act of July 20, 1905, see 
idem. How Canada is Governed, 39; id&m, Const. 
Hist., 73 ff. ; and map in Encyclopedia Americana). 

REFERENCES. 
Smith, Canada and Canadian Question, 138 f£., 147 ff., passim; 
Roberts, 334 ff.; Bryce, 44 ff.; and the authorities above cited. 

Section XXXV. General Character of the Federal Con- 
stitution OF the Dominion of Canada: The British 
North American Act (30 and 31 Victoria, chap. 3; and 
supplementary acts). 

I. Influence of the United States ; of the Swiss Instrument. 

II. Plan and Scope of the Constitutional Act (Bourinot, Pat; 
Govt., 339 ff.; idem, Fed. Govt., 485 ff.). 



CANADA. 95 

1. The preamble: general purpose and expediency of the 

union declared. 

2. Part I. Preliminary (sees. 1-2) : name and force of 

the act. 

3. Part II. Union (sees. 3-8). 

4. Part III. Executive power (sees. 9-16) : queen; Eng- 

lish privy council; governor-general; queen's privy 
council for Canada. 

5. Part IV. Legislative power sees. 17-57). 

a. Parliament: queen, senate, house of commons. 

6. Elections and election districts. 

c. Speaker; quorum. 

d. Money votes; royal assent; governor's assent and 

disallowance by order in council. 

6. Part V. Provincial constitutions (sees. 58-90). 

7. Part VI. Distribution of legislative powers (sees. 

91-95). 
a. Powers reserved to the Dominion parliament (and 

crown). 
&. Exclusive powers of the provincial legislatures, 
c. Special provisions for education, uniformity of 

laws, agriculture, and immigration. 

8. Part VII. Judicature (sees. 96-101) : supreme court; 

provincial courts ; judicial committee of privy council. 

9. Part VIII. Revenues; debts; assets; taxation (sees. 

102-126). 

10. Part IX. Miscellaneous provisions (sees. 127-144). 

11. Part X. Intercolonial railway (sec. 145). 

12. Part XI. Admission of other colonies (sees. 146-147). 

III. Was the Constitution, Without a Plebiscite, Legal? 
(See Smith, 143 fif.). 

TEXT OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

Houston, Const. Documents, 186-239; British Statutes, XV, 268, 289; 
Bourinot, Const. Hist., 191-235; idem. How Canada is Governed, 289- 
326; Munro, Constitution of Canada, 278-312; Todd, Parliamentary 
Government. 857-94; Appleton, Annual Cyclopedia, 1866, pp. 657-66; 
Dareste, II, 354-84; Roberts, 443-76. For analysis of the text, see Hart, 
Federal Government, 92 ff., 103 ff. 



96 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Section XXXVI. The Dominion Parliament. 
A. The Senate. 

I. Composition (since 1905). 

1. Number: 87 since 1905. 

a. The old provinces by the constitution in three 
groups of 24 senators each: Ontario, Quebec, 
maritime provinces, the latter having, respec- 
tively: New Brunswick, 10; Nova Scotia, 10; 
Prince Edward, 4. 

1). New provinces. 

1) Nanitoba, 4. 

2) British Columbia, 3. 

3) Alberta, 4. 

4) Saskatchewan, 4. 

2. Provision for admission of new provinces (act of 1871, 

34-5 Vict, chap. 28; Bourinot, Const. Hist., 231; 
Const., sec. 147). 

3. Provision for increase of 3 or 6 in case of deadlock 

(sec. 26) : is it of practical importance? (See 
Smith.) 

4. Mode of appointment; life tenure. 

5. Qualifications: age, 30 years; natural-born or natural- 

ized subjects of king; residence; property; special 
provision for Quebec and its motive. 

6. Vacancy by resignation. 

7. Vacancy by disqualification; vacancies, how filled; 

questions regarding determined by senate. 

8. Salary: |1,000 and mileage. 

9. Choice of speaker: appointed and removed by gover- 

nor-general ; provisions for quorum and majority 
vote. 

II. Powers of Senate. 

1. To what extent coordinate with those of commons? 

2. Action on money-bills? 

3. Powers compared with those of U. S. senate? 

4. Sources of the senate's weakness. 

a. Mode of appointment and life-tenure: what alter- 
nate plans considered? 



CANADA. 97 

6. Actual appointment by a single party leader, the 
premier. 

c. Mediocrity of the ability of senators. 

d. How far used to reward party service? Sources of 

corruption? Why dangerous to responsible gov- 
ernment through union with the ''outs"? (See 
Smith.) 

REFERENCES. 

Smith, Canada and Canadian Question, 162-170; Munro, Constitu- 
tion, 6, 142-8, 230; Todd, Parliamentary Government, 63, 204, 320-1, 
699-700; Bourinot, Const. Hist., 57-60; idem, How Canada is Governed, 
92-95; idem. Par. Govt., 339-40; idem, Federal Govt, 550 ff.; Roberts, 
351; Tarring, 78-79, passim; Clement, 326-27; Statesman's Year Book 
(1906), 496; Revised Statutes (1906), IV, 3183 fC. 

B. The House of Commons (sees. 37-57). 

I. Composition and Franchise. 

1. Number : elected for 5 years, subject to dissolution. 

a. For the four provinces at time of the act, 181: 
Ontario, 82; Quebec, 65; Nova Scotia, 19; New 
Brunswick, 15. 

T). Present number (1906), 214: Quebec, 65; Ontario, 
86; Nova Scotia, 18; New Brunswick, 13; Mani- 
toba, 10; British Columbia, 7; Prince Edward, 
4; Alberta, 10; Saskatchewan, 10; Yukon, 1 (see 
Revised Statutes of Canada^ 1906, I, 24, act of 
4 and 5 Ed. VII, chap. 3. On growth of repre- 
sentation, Bourinot, Const. Hist., 60; idem, How 
Canada is Governed, 95 ; New Int. Encyclopaedia, 
III, 842-43; Statesman's Year Book, 1906, p. 
496). 

2. Principle of apportionment after each decennial 

census: Quebec (65 members) taken as a standard. 

3. Qualifications and disqualifications of members 

(Munro, 128-130) ; substance of the "Corrupt Prac- 
tices Act." 

4. Quorum; majority; resignation; expulsion. 

5. Salary and mileage (Munro, 118-119; Bourinot, How 

Canada is Governed, 97). 

6. Officers of the commons (Munro. 112 ff., 138; Bourinot, 

How Canada is Governed, 97-8). 
7 



98 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS, 

a. The speaker: election; vote; salary (|4,000,00) ; 
powers (Munro, 119). 

&. Deputy-speaker. 

c. Other officers : sergeant at arms ; clerk ; clerk- 
assistant; law-clerk (for drafting public bills). 

7. Powers; money-votes; tax and revenue bills. 

8. The franchise. 

a. 1867-1885 : for federal elections, laws of respective 
provinces accepted. 

1). 1885-1898, a general federal law (see summary in 
Bourinot, How Canada is Governed^ 99-100; and 
Munro, 124-6).' 

c. Since 1898, provincial laws determine as at first: 
thus manhood suffrage, qualified by residence and 
British citizenship, prevails, except in Quebec 
and Nova Scotia where a small property qualifi- 
cation exists; who are disqualified? (Munro, 
127.) 

9. Election (Munro, 130-138; Bourinot, Const. Hist., 85- 

87). 
a. Writ; speaker's warrant in case of vacancy. 
Z>. Nominations. 

c. Australian ballot. 

d. Trial of election petitions. 

C. Provisions Relating to Parliament as a Whole. 

I. Parliamentary Privileges, Powers, and Immunities (sees. 
17-20). 

1. As determined by Dominion statutes. 

2. Not to exceed those of British commons. 

II. Royal Assent to Bills. 

1. When approved by governor, subject to veto of king 

in council. 

2. Reserved bills. 

3. Real extent of royal control of legislation. 

III. The Committees. 

IV. Private and Public Bills: Procedure. 

V. General Character of the Legislative System (Smith, 170- 
180). 

1. Character and ability of members; effect of liberal 
franchise; of payment of salaries; tendency to local- 
ism ; effects of party. 



CANADA, 99 

2. Comparison with congress and with the imperial par- 

liament. 

3. Relation to the cabinet. 

4. Disbritution of legislative powers (sees. 91-92). 

REFERENCES. 

Munro, 110-161; Bourinot, How Canada is Governed, 95-127; idem, 
Const. Hist., 57-62, 80 ff. ; idem, Parliamentary Government, 339 ff.; 
idem. Federal Government, 494 ff., 549 ff. ; Todd, Index at "Canada," 
"Legislation"; Tarring, 66 ff. ; Bourinot, Comp. Politics. 



Section XXXVII. The Executive (sees. 9-16, 54-57). 

I. The King, Acting Through the British Privy Council. 

1. Revision (veto) of bills. 

2. Appointment of governor-general. 

3. Control of military and naval forces. 

II. The Governor-General (sees. 10-14) : acting mainly on 
advice of the privy council for Canada (Munro, 162 ff.). 

1. Creation : letters-patent, instructions, commission. 

2. Powers relating to parliament. 

a. Appointment of senators. 

h. Appointment of speaker of senate. 

c. Summons, prorogation, dissolution. 

d. Recommends money bills. 

e. Assents to bills ; veto ; reserved bills. 

3. Duties relating to party-government. 

4. Appointment and removal of councillors. 

5. Functions regarding the judicature; appointment and 

removal of judges ; pardon. 

6. Prerogative powers : appointment of king's counsel ; 

of lieutenant-governors; disallowance of provincial 
bills. 

7. Responsibility. 

III. The King's Privy Council for Canada: Appointed and 
Removed by Governor. 

1. The cabinet members. 

a. Prime minister : on British model. 
6. Other members : number. 

2. "Ministers" as distinguished from cabinet members. 

IV. The Great Departments of State (see Munro and Bouri- 
not). 



100 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

V. The American, British, and Canadian Executives Com- 
pared (see Smith, 147-162; Bourinot, Const. Hist., 162 ff.; 
idem, Comparative Politics (1890). 

1. Political value of governor-general's office? 

2. Social value? 

REFERENCES. 

Smith, Canada and Canadian Question, 147-162; Tarring, 39 ff.; 
Munro, 162-215; Dilke, Problems, 57 fC.; Todd, 576 ff., 759 ff., and 
Index at "Canada," "Crown," "Governor-General"; Bourinot, Parlia- 
mentary Govt., 339-390; idem, Federal Govt, 491 ff., 533 ff.; idem, 
Comp. Politics; idem. Const. Hist., 47, 53 ff., 154-89 (good on min- 
istry) ; idem, How Canada is Governed, 64 ff., 73-91. 



Section XXXVIII. The Canadian Judicial System (sees. 

96-101). 

I. Judicial Committee of the (English) Privy Council (Todd, 
301-312). 

1. The highest court of appeal in colonial civil cases. 

2. Composition (Todd, 306). 

3. Appeal only by consent of the king in council : that is, 

of the judicial committee. 

4. Practical importance; its conservatism in use of juris- 

diction; highest tribunal on constitutional questions 
(see Todd). 

II. Federal or Dominion Courts. 

1, The supreme court of Canada: created, 1875. 

a. Composed of a chief justice and five puisne judges 
of whom at least two must be appointed from 
the bar or bench of Quebec province. 

6. Jurisdiction, 

1) Court of appeal from highest provincial 

courts; but it is not the exclusive tribunal 
of appeal, for appeals may be taken from 
some provincial courts directly to the judicial 
committee of privy council ; and from its de- 
cisions there is appeal to the same body. 

2) Appeal in criminal cases only when provincial 

judges not unanimous; appeals are allowed 
in contested elections ; but in neither of these 
two classes of cases are appeals to the judi- 
cial committee permitted. 



CANADA. 101 

3) Questions submitted by the governor in coun- 

cil; and private bills may be submitted for 
an opinion by either house of parliament. 

4) Constitutional questions : Controversies be- 

tween the Dominion and a province; be- 
tween provinces; validity of Dominion or 
pro^ancial laws, etc.; but this jurisdiction 
must be authorized by provincial statute 
(see Munro, 218-19) ; question of constitu- 
tionality may in first instance be raised in 
any court, high or low. 

2. The exchequer court. 

a. Separated from the supreme court, 1887. 
6. Jurisdiction : revenue cases or other interests of 
the crown; and in claims (Munro, 217). 

3. Admiralty court : how administered in ''districts" ? 

4. Appointment and tenure of federal judges (Bourinot, 

Mow Canada is Governed, 132-170 ; idem, Const. Hist., 
149 ff.; Munro, 221). 
III. The Provincial Courts. 

1. The creation of the provincial courts. 

a. The respective provinces have sole control of the 

constitution, organization, and maintenance of 

their civil and criminal courts, and power to 

regulate civil procedure. 
6. The control of criminal law and procedure belongs 

solely to the Dominion parliament: there is a 

criminal code. 

c. The Dominion parliament may assign duties to the 

provincial courts. 

d. The Dominion appoints, removes, and pays all 

judges of the superior, district, and county 
courts of the provinces, except the probate 
courts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. 

1) Tenure; appointments, how made. 

2) Procedure in case of trial of charges against 

a judge (Bourinot, Const. Hist., 151-3). 

e. Justices of the peace, police judges, and stipendiary 

magistrates are appointed by the provincial gov- 
ernments. 



102 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2, Qualifications of the various grades of judges (Bouri- 

not, How Canada is Governed^ 170). 

3. Varieties of courts in the provinces (Bourinot, How 

Canada is Governed, 177-191; Munro, 88-109). 
a. Courts of civil jurisdiction, 
6. Courts of criminal jurisdiction. 

REFERENCES. 

Munro, 88-109, 206-208, 216-222 (Dominion courts); Todd, 301-12, 
319-20, 184, 538-75 (Dominion courts); Smith, 183; Bourinot, How 
Canada is Governed, 62-63, 65-66, 128-132, 170-210; idem, Const. Hist, 
149 ff.; idem, Federal Govt., 519-524. 



Section XXXIX. The Provincial and Local Govern- 
ments. 

A. The Provincial Constitutions. 

I. Distribution of Legislative Powers (sees. 91-92). 

1. The question of state sovereignty ; contrast of Canadian 

and United States history regarding the division of 
powers. 

2. The 29 groups of powers reserved to the Dominion 

parliament (sec. 91). 

3. The 16 groups of powers reserved to the provincial 

legislatures (sec. 92). 

4. The residuum of powers belongs to the Dominion par- 

liament. 

5. Decisions of the supreme court and judicial committee 

on questions of legislative jurisdiction; rules of con- 
struction (see examples in Bourinot, Const. Hist., 
84-142). 

II. The Provincial Executive (Bourinot, Cons*. Hist., 62-65; 
idewi, How Canada is Governed, 147-8) . 

1. The lieutenant-governor. 

a. Appointment and dismissal; term, practically 5 

years. 
h. Character and functions. 

1) At once represents king. Dominion, and 

province. 

2) Duties: executive and administrative; rela- 

tions to legislature and to the executive 
council (cabinet). 



CANADA. * 103 

2. The executive council (see lists in Bourinot, How 
Canada is Governed^ 151-152). 

a. How appointed. 

b. Members. 

1) In cabinet with departments, 6 to 8. 

2) Without office (in 5 provinces), 1 to 6. 

c. Kelations of the councillors to the provincial as- 

sembiies and to the lieutenant-governor deter- 
mined by the usual cabinet law and custom. 

III. The Provincial Legislatures. 

1. Bicameral systems in Quebec and Nova Scotia. 

a. Legislative councils: in Quebec 24 and in Nova 
Scotia 21 members appointed by the crown 
(lieutenant-governor) for life; speaker, appointed 
by lieutenant-governor in council during pleas- 
ure; powers similar to those of Dominion senate. 

6. Legislative assemblies : 74 members in Quebec, and 
38 in Nova Scotia ; elected for five years. 

2. Unicameral system in the seven other provinces (for 

present numbers, see Stateman/s Year Book, 190(J, 

p. 497). 
a. Qualifications (Munro, 61 ff.) ; compensation and 

mileage; tenure, 4 years. 
J). Speaker and other officers. 

c. Public and private bills: rules same as for Do- 

minion parliament; Dominion power of disallow- 
ance (Bourinot, Const. Hist., 142-49). 

d. Relations to prime minister and council (cabinet) : 

rules, same as for Dominion, 
c. Number (see lists in Bourinot, How Canada is 
Governed, 159). 

f. Constitutional subjects of legislation (sec. 92) ; 

qualified control of education. 

g. Elective franchise and election laws (similar to 

those of Dominion ; see Bourinot, How Canada is 
Governed, 157, 160-1; Munro, 55-61, 64-6). 

IV. Provincial Judicature (see preceding syllabus). 

REFERENCES. 
Munro, 40-87; Bourinot, Const. Hist., 62-149; idem, How Canada 
is Governed, 145-169; Todd, 430-575, 579 ff., and Index. 



104 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

B. The Local Constitutions. 

I. Origin and History, to 1840 (see Bourinot, Local Govern- 
ment in Canada, 43-69). 

1. Under the French regime, 1608-1760. 

2. Lower Canada, 1760-1840. 

3. Upper Canada, 1760-1840. 

4. The maritime provinces. 

II. The Divisions of the Provinces for Purposes of Local Gov- 
ernment. 

1. The county : the largest municipal division in the pro- 

vince. It has 
a. Council composed of elected or ex officio members; 
h. Warden, reeve, or other head oflScer. 

2. The township, parish, town, village, city (these are 

are sometimes called "local municipalities"). 
a. Elected councils. 
6. Reeve or mayor and other officers. 

III. Local Constitution of Ontario (as an example). 

1. Counties : each with a council composed of 2 members 

elected for 2 years in each "division"; and a warden 
chosen by the council. 

2. The council in every city composed of a mayor and 3 

aldermen for each ward; town, of a mayor and 

3 or 2 councillors for each ward; township, of 
a reeve and 4 councillors; village, of a reeve and 

4 councillors. 

a. Election of councillors, mayors, and reeves is by 
general vote by ward. 

&. By a referendum, the people may establish election 
of town and city officers by general vote (Bouri- 
not. How Canada is Governed, 222-3). 

3. Origin and general character of the Ontario township 

(see McEvoy). 

IV. Local Constitutions of the Other Provinces. 

REFERENCES. 

Bourinot, Local Government in Canada, In J. H. U. S. (1887), VI, 
175-246; or the same in Royal Society of Canada (1886), IV, sec. 2, 
and separately reprited; idem, How Canada is Governed, 219-240; 
McEvoy, The Ontario Township (Toronto, 1889). 



CHAPTER V. 

ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 
OF THE AUSTRALIAN COMMONWEALTH. 



Section XL. Literature Available for the Course. 

I. Bibliographies. 

Edwards (H. W.), Movement for Federation, 136-38. 
Jenks (E), Australasian Colonies, 320. 
Moore (W. H.), Commonwealth, p. xx. 
New International Encyclopaedia, II, 276-77. 

Special Card Catalogue of the Department of Political Science and 
Sociology. 

II. Geography. 

Lucas (C. P.), Historical Geography of the British Colonies (1891). 
Century Atlas and other standard atlases. 

Maps in Encyclopedia Americana and New International Encyclo- 
paedia. 
Maps in the works of Jenks, Finley, and Dilke. 

III. Historical Manuals or Accounts and Constitutional 
Treatises. 

Clark (A. I.), Studies in Australian Constitutional Law (1907). 

Edwards (H. W.), The Movement for Federation in Australia 
(1901). An unpublished thesis; best historical account. 

Favenc, History of Australian Explorations, 1788-1888 (1892). 

Finney (Joseph), History of the Australian Colonies (1902). Use- 
ful general manual; many maps. 

Jenks (E.), History of the Australasian Colonies (1895). Reaches 
only 1893; a good work. 

Kirkpatrick (J.), "Constitution of the Commonwealth of Aus- 
tralia," in Juridical Review, XII (1900), 113 ff. 

Larned (J. N.), History for Ready Reference (1894), I, 190 ff. 
Good historical sketch. 

Moore (W. H.), The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Aus- 
tralia (1902). Excelletit scientific treatise; practically an 
annotated text; good historical account, pp. 12-61. 

Parkes (Henry), Fifty Years in the Making of Australian History 
(1892). 

Quick (J.) and Garran (R. R.), Annotated Constitution of the 
Autsralian Commonwealth (1901). The most elaborate treat- 
ise yet published; has full historical account, pp. 23-261. 

Short Accounts in Encyclopedia Americana, vol. II; and New 
International Encyclopaedia, vol. II. 
(105) 



106 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

IV. General and Special Works of Importance for the Course. 
Appleton (pub.). Annual Cyclopedia, for eacli year. 
Bannow (W.), The Colony of Victoria (1897). 
Clark (V. S.), Labour Movement in Australasia (1907). 
Cotton (J. S.) and Payne (B. J.), Colonies and Dependencies 
(1883). 

Deakin (A.), "The Federation of Australia," in Scribner's Maga- 
zine (1891), X, 549 ff. 

Dilke (C. W.), Problems of Greater Britain (1890). 
Dilke (C. W.),"The Commonwealth of Australia," in Forum 
(1891), XI, .379. 

Egerton (H. E.), Short History of British Colonial Policy (1897). 
See Index. 

Epps (W.), Land Systems of Australia (1894). 
Finniss (B. T.), Constitutional History of South Australia (1886). 
Flanagan (R.), History of New South Wales (2 vols., 1862). 
Galloway (W. J.), Advanced Australia (1899). 
Garran (R. R.), Coming Commonwealth of Australia (1899). 
Greswell (W. P.), British Colonization (1893). 
Jenks (B.), Government of Victoria (1891). 

Jenkyns (H.), British Rule and Jurisdiction Beyond the Seas 
(1902). 

Kohler (J.), "Australian Commonwealth and its Legal Character," 
in Zeitschrift filr Volkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht, I, Nos. 
2, 3. 

Lauterer (J.), Austr alien und Tasmanien (1900). 

Lewis (G. C), Government of Dependencies (1891). 

Lloyd (H. I.), Newest England (1903). 

Morris (H. C), History of Colonization (2 vols., 1900). 

Parkes (Henry), "Union of the Australias," in Contemporary Re- 
view, July, 1891. 

Reeves (W. P.), State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand 
(2 vols., 1902). 

Reid (G. H.), "Commonwealth of Australia," in Nineteenth Cen- 
tury (1891), XXX, 145-153. 

Rowland (P. F.), "Economic Resources of the Australian Common- 
wealth," in Economic Review, XII (1902), 172-184. 

Symon (J. H.), "United Australia," in Yale Review (1900), IX, 

129-163. 
Tarring (C. J.), Laws Relating to the Colonies (2d ed., 1893). 
Teece (R. C), Federal Constitutions of Canada and Australia 

(1902). 
Todd (A.), Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies 

(2d ed., 1894). 
Turner (H. G.), History of the Colony of Victoria (vol. I, 1904). 
Walker (Henry de R.), Australian Democracy (1897). 
"Willoughby (H.), Australian Federation (1891). 



AUSTRALIA. 107 

V. Short Accounts. 

Anson, Law and Custom, 11^ 255; Statesman's Year Book; Seeley, 
Expansion of England: Lalor, Cyclopaedia, III, 13-16; Jebb, 
Studies in Colonial Nationalism, Index at "Australia"; 
Reinsch, Colonial Government; Payne, History of European 
Colonies; Bourinot, "Canada and Australia," in Royal So- 
ciety (1895), I, sec. 2: Ball, "State Experiments in Australia," 
in Economic Review (1903), XIII, 870-3; Barton, "Australia 
and Her Problems," in The Independent, LIV (1902), 2165-67; 
idem, "Australian Federation" (1900), in North Am. Rev., 
CLXX, 772-4; Beach, "The Australian Federal Constitution" 
in Pol. Sci. Quarterly (1899), XIV, 663-80; Braddon, 
"Federation Movement in Australia" (1896), in Nineteenth 
Century, XL, 156-72; Brassey, "Australian Federation," in 
Nineteenth Century (1899), XLV, 548-57; Burgess, "Social 
Experiments in Australia," in Arena (1900), XXIII, 132-40; 
Childers, "Court of Appeal," in Nineteenth Century (1901), 
L., 152-60; Deakin, in Scribner's (1891), X, 549-61; Donovan, 
in Westminster Review (1899), CLII, 155-65; Duckworth, in 
Economic Journal (1899), IX, 322-27; Fortescue, in Nineteenth 
Century (1891), XXX, 430-43; Gelling, "Municipal Institutions 
of Australia," in Annals of A. A. (1904), XXIII, 61-73; Henry, 
in Outlook (1901), LXVIII, 483-6; Higgins, in Contemp. Rev. 
(1900), LXXVII, 480-90; Hogan, in ibid. (1901), LXXX, 657- 
65; Holder, in Independent (1904), LVI, 9-13; Lusk, in Re- 
view of Reviews (1901), XXIII, 74-7; idem, in N. A. Rev. 
(1904), CLXXVIII, 598-604; idem, "Chinese? Exclusion in Aus- 
tralia," in ibid., CLXXIV, 368-75; idem, "The First Parlia- 
ment of Australia," in Review of Reviews (1903), XXVII, 
333-38; Macnaughten, in Economic Review (1903), XIII, 286- 
94; Mann, "Political and Industrial Situation in Australia," 
in Nineteenth Century (1904), LVI, 475-91; Moore, in Law 
Quarterly Review (1900), XVII, 35-43; idem, in Annals of A. 
A. (1903), XXI, 183-208; Parsons, "The Privy Council," in 
Blackwood's, XVI, 687-701; many articles in Spectator, Sat- 
urday Revieiv, Melbourne Review, and Victorian Review; and 
others mentioned in the Special Card Catalogue. 

VI. Selected Sources and Serial Publications. 

Australian Comomnwealth and States, Court Reports (State Li- 
brary). 

Australian States, Statutes ( State Library) . 

Australian Federal Convention, Official Report of Debates, First, 
Second, and Third Sessions (Report of Second Session in 
State Library). 

Australian Handbook. Published annually since 1873. 

Federal Council of Australasia, Official Record of Debates, First 
Session (1886). 

Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers, Hansard's Debates, General 
Statutes. 

Melbourne Argus. Published daily since 1854. 

Melbourne Review. Published since 1880. 

National Australasian Convention, Official Record of Debates 
(1891). 



108 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

South Australia, Parliamentary Debates, 1857-1907. 

Victorian Review. Published since 1880. 

Year Book of Australia, edited by Edward Greville. Published 

annually since 1885 under auspices of the Governments of the 

Colonies. 

Section XLI. Discovery^ Exploration, and Colonization op 
Australia, to 1788. 

I. Discovery (Jenks, Australasian Colonies, 1-19; Finney, 
3-14; Edwards, 1 ff.; Quick and Garran, 6 ff., 23 ff.). 

1. Early knowledge and belief regarding Australia. 

a. Legend and rumor. 

&. Maps: the Rotz map, 1542; the Testu map of Jave 

la Grande, 1555. 
c. The book of Cornelius Wytfliet, 1598: the name 

Terra Australis; the name Australasia, invented 

by Brosses, ca. 1750. 

2. The Spanish discovery, 1606. 

a. Mendana reaches Santa Cruz group (1595). 

h. His pilot, Quiros, reaches the New Hebrides, one of 

which he calls Austral del Espiritu Santo (1605). 
c. Quiros's lieutenant, Torres, coasts along New 

Guinea, reaches 11th degree, and probably sighted 

the Australian continent (1606). 

3. The Dutch discovery, 1606?— 1642 (New Holland). 

a. Traditional discovery by the Duyfhen (1606). 
h. By Dirk Hartog in the ship Eendracht (1616), at 
Shark Bay. 

c. Other voyages, 1623, 1628. 

d. Discoveries of Abel Janz Tasman (1642) : Tas- 
mania (Van Dieman's land until 1853), November 
24; New Zealand, December 13 (called by him 
Staates Land) ; other islands. 

4. English discoveries. 

a. By Dampier: Australia (New Holland), 1689, 

1699. 
T). Captain James Cook: New Zealand, August, 1769; 

Botany Bay, Australia, autumn, 1770; he names 

New South Wales; his two later voyages, 1772, 

1776-9. 

II. Characteristics of Australia. 

1. Soil and climate. 



AUSTRALIA. 109 

2. Fauna and flora; why British economy was reproduced? 

3. Character of the aborigines. 

4. Contrasting character of New Zealand climate, geog- 

raphy, fauna, flora, and aborigines. 



Section XLII. The Founding of the Australasian Colonies. 

I. New South Wales, 1788-1851 (Jenks, 20-51; Quick and Gar- 
ran, 35 ff.; Finney, 16 ff.). 

1. The penal colony established under Captain (later 

Governor) Phillip at Port Jackson (Sydney), 

near Botany Bay, 1788. 
a. Earlier history of the British "transportation" 

system ; the inquiry of 1779 ; the act of 1783 ; and 

the orders of 1786. 
6. The penal settlement due mainly to the government 

and not to private suggestion (Jenks, 20-26). 

c. Incidents in the history of the colony to 1821. 

d. General history to 1851. 

2. Development of institutions (Jenks, 52-71, 139-165). 

a. The governor, under the colonial . office, practically 
the sole authority until 1823; ''crown 
colony" (Jenks, 147). 

1) Military court of judge advocate and 6 as- 

sessors; other courts. 

2) Civil courts, 1814; influence of Baron Field. 

3) Rise of an executive council, appointed by the 

governor; date of origin uncertain. 
I. The constitution of 1823. 

1) Supreme courts for New South Wales and 

Tasmania ; also courts of quarter sessions 
and other courts; jury in civil suits; 
anomalous court of appeal. 

2) Legislative council of 5 to 7 appointed by the 

colonial office, with restricted financial and 
legislative powers; 1825, 3 independent (non- 
ofiicial) members admitted. 

3) Partial separation of Tasmania. 

c. The constitution of 1828 : for the 2 colonies of New 
South Wales and Tasmania. 
1) Appeals to privy council allowed; new circuit 



110 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

courts; local legislatures allowed to extend 
jury to criminal suits. 

2) Legislative council enlarged to 15; executive 

council gains new powers; chief justice loses 
absolute veto on ordinances. 

3) Beginnings of subordinate governments in 

Victoria (at Melbourne) Western Australia, 
and South Australia, 1828-1839. 

d. Constitution of 1842 (only for New South Wales). 

1) Eepresentation in legislative councils to con- 

sist of two classes of members. 

2) Provisions for local government. 

e. Act of 1850: practically places South Australia, 

Tasmania, and Victoria on same basis as New 
South Wales by act of 1842; attempt of colonial 
office to make the governor of New South Wales 
a "governor-general" for the three other colonies 
(to 1855). 

II. Tasmania, 1798-1851. 

1. Explorations; founding of Hobart, 1804; of Launces- 

ton, 1806. 

2. Subordinate to New South Wales until made a separate 

colony, 1825. 

III. Victoria. 

1. Melbourne founded, 1836-7. 

2. Port Phillip district under New South Wales, 1839. 

3. Separate colony, 1850. 

IV. Queensland, separate colony, 1859. 

V. New Zealand. 

1. Early history. 

2. Coloiay, 1840. 

VI. South Australia. 

1. Exploration and early history; colony founded 1836. 

2. Separate colony, with Adelaide as capital, 1850. 

VII. Western Australia. 

1. Founded, 1829. 

2. Representative institutions, 1870. 

3. Responsible government, with bicameral parliament, 

1890. 



AUSTRALIA. Ill 

REFERENCES. 

Jenks, Australasian Colonies, as cited; Edwards, 1-4; Finney, see 
table of contents; Quick and Garran, 35-78; Jenks, Government of 
Victoria; Finniss, Const. Hist, of South Australia; Todd, Index; New 
International Encyclopaedia, at "Australia," and name of each colony; 
Lamed, in History for Ready Reference, I; Moore, 12-18; Flanagan, 
New South Wales. See also the works of Favenc and Morris. 



Section XLIII. The Movement for Federation^ 1846-1890. 

I. Earl Grey and the Origin of the Movement (Edwards, .5-15; 
Jenks, 294-300; Quick and Garran, 81 ff . ; Moore, 19 flf.). 

1. The tariff problem; suggestion of Governor Fitzroy of 

New South Wales, 1846; a "superior functionary" 
to be created. 

2. Earl Grey's dispatch to Governor Fitzroy, 1847; recom- 

mends a "central authority" in the colonies and a 
change in the constitution of N. S. W. {Pari. Papers, 
1847-8, XLII, No. 715; Edwards, 5-7). 

3. Protesting petition of the people of Sydney. 

4. Grey's dispatch of July 31, 1849. 

5. Report of the committee for trade and plantations 

{Pari. Papers, 1849, XXV, 33; Jenks, 294; Edwards, 
7; Quick and Garran, 83; Moore, 20). 

6. The federal constitution bill of 1850. 

o. Contents; plan for representation; Gladstone's op- 
position to the scheme. 

&. Why federal clauses rejected by parliament and 
disliked in Australia? Character of the amended 
act adopted; why called 'Magna Charta of Aus- 
tralia"? (Kirpatrick, in Juridical Review, XII, 
114; EdAvards, 12.) 

c. New colony of Victoria (1850) adopts policy of 
"protection": evil results? (See Finney, 212.) 

7. Executive union under a governor-general authorized 

by a commission of Earl Grey (1851-1861), following 
Fitzroy's suggestion of 1846 (see Jenks, Victoria. 
155-6; idem, Colonies, 295; Moore 21-2; Quick and 
Garran, 89-90). 

II. Development of Federal Sentiment in the Colonies, 1853- 
1863: the Movement Confined Mainly to a Few Leaders. 

1. In New South Wales. 



112 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

a. 1853, select legislative committee on new constitu- 
tion recommends a general assembly: Went- 
worth's influence in favor; why tlie scheme a 
failure? 

5. 1856 : Secretary Deas-Thomson proposes in a 

speech. 
G. 1857, August 19, legislative council appoints a 
committee on establishment of a federal legisla- 
ture; report of committee, October 20; council 
proposes a conference; joint meeting of the two 
houses of the legislature (Edwards, 19-20). 

2. In Victoria. 

a. 1853 : legislative committee on new constitution 
favors ; Duffy's influence. 

6. 1857, January 16, Gavan Duffy secures a select 

committee on federal union; the committee's 
report, adopted by both houses, recommends a 
colonial conference (see extract in Edwards, 18, 
note; Quick and Garran, 95 ff. ; Moore, 24). 

3. Wentworth's memorial for the "General Association" 

(in England) on permissive principle recommending 
a federal assembly with equal colonial representa- 
tion; permissive constitutional convention; opposi- 
tion of British colonial secretary (Moore, 23; Quick 
and Garran, 93-95; Edwards, 17-18). 

4. Action in South Australia (1859-60) ; Queensland 

(1860) ; Tasmania (1862) : failure of the entire 
movement for a conference (Moore, 25). 

5. Dr. J. D. Lang and the independence party : his books, 

1852, 1870; he secures legislative committee, 1860 
(Edwards, 22-3). 
III. Continuation of the Movement Through Colonial Confer- 
ences, 1863-1883 (Edwards, 24-34; Moore, 25-30; Quick and 
Garran, 100 ff.). 

1. Struggle to overcome tariff diffculties; the movement 

thus fostered (Quick and Garran 100 ff.). 

2. Conference of 1863 (in Melbourne). 

3. Postal conference, 1867 (in Melbourne). 

a. Federal council suggested. 

6. Sir Henry Parkes's bill in the legislative assembly, 
N. S. W. 



AUSTRALIA. 113 

4. Conference of 1870. 

5. Victorian Royal Commission, 1870. 

a. Purpose (Moore, 27). 
h. Report. 

6. Conference of 1880-81 (Quick and Garran, 107-9; Jenks, 

Colonies, 29^-7). 

7. General results of the conferences; the press and fed- 

eration; why federation was delayed. 
IV. The Federal Council, 1885 (Edwards, 35-56; Dilke, Prob- 
lems, 264, 228; Parkes, Fifty Years, I, 589; Quick and Gar- 
ran, 109-115; Moore, 37 ff.; Jenks, 295-7). 

1. Events leading to the movement for a council. 

a. France and the penal colony of New Caledonia; 

suspicion of Germany. 
6. Queensland formally takes possession of southern 

New Guinea, April 4, 1883. 
c. Lord Derby repudiates Queensland's action and 

suggests union. 

2. The convention of delegates at Sydney, November, 1883. 

a. Draft-bill for a federal council adopted. 
&. Popular discussion and criticism. 

c. Favored by legislatures of all colonies except New 

Zealand and New South Wales; opposition of 
Parkes. 

d. Lord Derby's conciliatory letter of explanation. 

3. Imperial act establishing a council, 1885. 

a. Substance of the act ; powers of the council. 
&. By what colonies accepted. 

4. Number of sessions and the work accomplished by the 

council. 
a. Weakness of the body. 
h. Value of the experiment. 

Section XLIV. The Defense Problem and the Conference 
OF 1890 (Edwards, 57-74). 

I. Character of the Problem. 

1. Alleged danger from Australia's isolated and exposed 

position. 

2. Scheme proposed by conference of Australian dele- 

gates in London, 1887. 



114 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

3. This scheme embodied in the act of 51 and 52 Victoria, 

chap. 32; substance; Queensland fails to agree (Dilke, 
Problems^ 269). 

4. The investigation and report by General Bevan Ed- 

wards, 1889: he recommends federation. 
II. The Melbourne Conference of February, 1890. 

1. Origin : influence of General Edwards's recommenda- 

tion ; Sir Henry Parkes's Invitation to other premiers ; 
popular discussion. 

2. Composed of members of the federal council and 

deputies from colonies not thus represented; high 
character of the body. 

3. Organization; motion of Parkes (February 10). 

4. The debates : speeches of Griffith, Deakin, Playford, 

and Parkes; objections by the opposition; tendencies 
as to type of constitution needed. 

5. The conference provides for the call of a national con- 

vention. 
a. Choice of delegates by the provincial legislatures; 
the opposition in N. S. W,, led by the "irreconcil- 
able," George R. Dibbs. 
6. Discussions pending the meeting; Parkes's resolu- 
tions outlining principles of the proposed con- 
stitution. 

REFERENCES. 
Edwards, 57-74; Quick and Garran, 115-123; Moore, 39 ff.; Jenks, 
Australasian Colonies, 297-98; Parkes, Fifty Years, II, 337 ff.; Garran, 
Coming Commonwealth, 115 ff. 

Section XLV. The National Australasian Convention and 
THE Constitution of 1891 (March 2 to April 9). 

I. Composition and Organization : 45 Members from 7 
Colonies. 

1. Character of the members. 

2. Leaders; Dibbs and the opposition. 

3. Parkes chosen president, and Griffith vice-president. 

4. Debates to be open to public. 

II. Parties and Antagonisms. 

1. Federalists vs. antifederalists. 

2. Small states vs. large states. 

3. Protectionists vs. free-traders. 



AUSTRALIA. 115 

III. Plan for a Constitution Presented in Resolutions by Sir 
Henry Parkes (Quick and Garran, 124-5). 

1. Principles. 

2. Organization. 

IV. The Debates (Quick and Garran, 126-143). 

1. Preliminary discussion ; chief points of criticism ; what 

model for the upper house? 

2. Discussion in the committee of the whole. 

a. Powers of colonies (states). 

6. Customs-duties. 

c. The great compromise on powers and constitution 
of the senate; the convention in danger of dis- 
ruption. 

tt. The executive: Baker's amendment adopted. 

e. The judiciary : the question of appeal to the privy 

council. 

f. March 18, reference of the amended resolutions to 

three committees. 

g. March 31, the draft-bill reported; the debate 

thereon. 

1) The name ''Commonwealth." 

2) Election of senators by legislatures. 

3) The "single vote." 

4) Relative powers of the houses; Baker's amend- 

ment; Dibbs's speech. 

5) The judiciary; question of courts for in- 

dustrial arbitration; appeals to privy 
council. 

6) Surplus revenue. 

7) x\ssumption of state debts. 

8) Com.munication between states and home gov- 

ernment. 

9) Appointment of state governors. 

10) Amendments: referendum rejected. 

11) Adoption of the amended draft, April 9; pro- 

visions for submission to people; and for 
recommendation of a constitutional act by 
imperial parliament. 

V. Principal Features of the Constitution of 1891 (Edwards, 
105-114). 

1. The Legislature. 



116 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

a. Composition of the senate and house; term of 

office; franchise; relative powers, etc. 
J). Powers of parliament. 

2. The executive. 

a. Governor-general. 
6. Executive council. 
c. Ministers. 

3. Supreme court; other courts to be created by the fed- 

eral parliament. 

4. Relative powers of states and federal government. 

5. Amendments. 

6. General character of the instrument; relative influence 

of Canada, Switzerland, and United States. 

7. Original features. 

REFERENCES. 
Edwards, 75-114; Quick and Garran, 123-143; Moore, 40 ff.; Jenks, 
Colonies, 298-300; idem, Victoria, 269 ff.; Parkes, Fifty Years, II, 338 f£.; 
Braddon, in Nineteenth Century (1896), XL, 156-72; Willoughby, 
in iMd., XXX, 292-302; Cameron, in Forum (1891), XI, 250-57; Deakin, 
in Scrihner's (1891), X, 549-61; Dilke, in Forum (1891), XI, 379-97; 
Duffy, in Contemporary Review (1890), LVII, 153-169; Fortescue, in 
Nineteenth Century (1891), XXIX, 523-37; Reid, in iUd., XXX, 145- 
53; Parkes, in Contemporary Review (1891), LX, 1 ff.; Salmon, in 
Fortnightly Review (1895), LXIV, 67-77; Galloway, Advanced Aus- 
tralia, 149 ff.; Reeves, II, 143 ff. ; Garran, Coming Commonwealth, 
115 ff.; Walker, Australian Democracy, Index. 

Section XLVI. The Triumph of the Federal Movement^ 

1891-1901. 

I. Action on the Draft Constitution of 1891. 

1. Failure of all the legislatures to approve. 

a. Not introduced in the parliaments of Western Aus- 
tralia, Queensland, and New Zealand. 

T). Defeated in the parliaments of South Australia, 
Tasmania, and Victoria. 

c. G. H. Reid prevents its introduction in N. S. W. 

2. Reasons for the failure: mainly due to a lack of 

popular interest; not demanded by public opinion 
(see Parkes, Fifty Years, II; Deakin, in Scrihner's, 
X, 561; Dilke, in Forum., XI, 393; Edwards, 117-120). 

II. How the Movement Was Revived (Edwards, 121 flf.) ; it 
spreads to the people. 

1. Educative influence of the constitution and debates of 
1891. 



AUSTRALIA. 117 

2. Increasing relative influence of the native Australians. 

a. "Australian Natives Association" favors federa- 
tion. 

&. Local "federation leagues" in a conference demand 
a federal constitution to be formed by a popularly 
elected convention, and submitted to a direct 
vote of the people (1893). 

3. Premier G. H. Reid (N. S. W.) secures a conference of 

premiers, 1895. 

a. This calls a constitutional convention of delegates 
to be chosen by the electors. 

6. Agrees to a draft enabling act, to be introduced in 
each parliament. 

c. Five parliaments provide for the choice of dele- 
gates. 

4. Influence of the "People's Federal Convention" at 

Bathurst, 1896. 

III. The Federal Convention of March 22, 1897-March 17, 
1898 (Quick and Garran, 165 ff . ; Edwards, 124-33; Moore, 
45 flf.). 

1. Composed of 50 delegates from 5 colonies; Queensland 

and New Zealand not being represented. 
«. Character of the members. 
6. Increased number of jurists. 

2. Organization. 

3. The first session at Adelaide, March 22-May 5, 1897; 

a constitution drafted ; after adjournment, it was dis- 
cussed and amended by the parliaments ; fear of dead- 
lock, if federal senators chosen directly by the people. 

4. The second session at Sydney, September 2-24, 1897. 

a. Amendments discussed (286 in number). 

6. Compromise agreement to prevent deadlock be- 
tween senate and house (Quick and Garran. 
189 ff.). 

5. The third session at Melbourne, January 20-March 17, 

1898 (Quick and Garran, 194 ff.). 
a. Final compromise as to deadlock. 
Z>. Constitution completed for the referendum. 

IV. The First Referendum, 1898. 

1. Various antagonisms developed. Compared with 
American struggle in 1788. 



118 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2. Constitution carried in Victoria, Tasmania, and South 

Australia; failed of necessary 80,000 in N. S. W. ; 
Western Australia took no vote. 

3. The struggle in N. S. W. parliament (Quick and Gar- 

ran, 213 ff.). 

a. Amendments proposed; accepted in a conference 

of premiers held January 28, 1899; provision for 

a second referendum (Quick and Garran, 218 flf.). 
6. Legislative council refuses assent to work of 

premiers and is swamped by creation of 12 new 

members. 

V. The Second Eeferendum, 1899 (Quick and Garran, 221-28). 

1. Constitution carried by 5 colonies, including Queens- 

land. 

2. Not submitted in Western Australia ; petition of 23,000 

people of Eastern Goldfields to be made a separate 
colony. 

3. Australian delegates invited to Eingland by the colonial 

secretary. 

VI. The "Commonwealth of Australia Constitutional Act" 
Passed by the Imperial Parliament, July 9, 1900, 63 and 64 
Victoria, chap. 12 (Quick and Garran, 228-52). 

1. Secretary Chamberlain's objections to three principal 

points. 

2. Finally he accepts a provision for restricted right of 

appeal to privy council. 

3. July 19, 1900, Earl Hopetoun appointed first gover- 

nor-general; Edmund Barton, N. S. W., becomes first 
premier. 

4. January 1, 1901, the "Commonwealth of Australia" 

formally inaugurated. 

VII. The Most Characteristic Features of the Australian Con- 
stitution. 

REFERENCES. 

Quick and Garran, Parkes, Edwards, Moore, and Garran, Coming 
Commonwealth; Symon, in Yale Review, IX^ 12&-63; "Walker, in At- 
lantic, LXXXIII (1899), 577-85; Vogel, in Contemp. Review, LXXIV, 
275-79; Stout, in Forum, XXX, 321-31; "Status of Aust. Fed.," in 
Nation, LXX, 374-5; "The Aust. Commonwealtli and the Privy Coun- 
cil," in Spectator, LXXXIV, 542-43; compare iUd., 693-94; "The Federa- 
tion of Australia," in Sat. Rev., LXXXVII, 516-17; Russell in N. A. 
Rev., CLXVII, 27-38; Lusk, in iUd., CLXXII, 103-12; idem, in Rev. of 
Rev., XXII, 72-74; Posnett, in Fort. Rev., LXXV, 969-88; Parsons, 



AUSTRALIA. 119 

"Commionwealth and the Privy Council," in Blackwoods, CLiXYI (1899), 
D87-701; idem, in Fort. Rev., LXXII, 612-21; Moore, in Law Quarterly 
Rev., XVI, 35-43; Lusk, "First Parliament of Australia," in Rev. of 
Rev., XXVII (1903), 333-38; idem, "Second Par.," in N. A. Rev., 
CLXXVIII, 597-604; idem, in Forum (1899-1900), XXVIII, 482-92; 
idem, in Rev. of Rev., XXIII, 74-77; Hogan, in Contemp. Rev., LXXX, 
657-65; Higgins, in ibid., LXXVII, 480-90; Henry, in Outlook, LXVIII, 
483-86; Godkin, in Atlantic, LXXXI, 322-36; Fortescue, in Nineteenth 
Century (1891), XXX, 430-45; Fetchett, "Failure of the Aust. Fed. 
Bill," in Canadian Magazine, XI, 400-408; Duckwood, "Economic As- 
pect of Aust. Fed.," in Economic Journal (1899), IX, 322-27; Donovan, 
"Queensland Politics and Federation," in Westminster Rev. (1899), 
CLII, 155-65; Nation. LXIV, 453-55, LXVI, 378-79; Childers, "What 
Court of Appeal," in Nineteenth Century, L, 152-60; Brassey, in 
ibid., XLV, 548-57; Beach, in Pol. Sci. Quarterly, XIV, 663-80; Barton, 
in N. A. Rev., CLXX, 772-84. 



Section XLVII. General Character of the Constitution 
OF THE Australian Commonwealth: The "Constitution 
Act" (63 and 64 Victoria, chap. 12). 

I. Influence of Other Federal Constitutions. 

1. Switzerland: form or subdivision of the written instru- 

ment; preamble; state ownership and control; con- 
stitutional referendum. 

2. Dominion of Canada: relatively little influence; its 

centralization disliked. 

3. United States : the tripartite division of departments; 

great influence of the American constitution on the 
form, principles, and details, but notable differences. 

II. Plan and Scope of the "Constitution Act" (Moore, 62-81; 
Quick and Garran, 262-383). 

1. Preliminar}^ provisions. 

a. The preamble: function of the preamble; God in 
the constitution; meaning of "under the crown" 
(Moore, 73-74; Quick and Garran, 294-296); 
meaning of the "people have agreed to unite"; 
sources of sovereignty; the term "indissoluble"; 
the 8 "affirmations" (Todd, 243; Quick and Gar- 
ran, 286; Moore, 77). 
6. The nine "covering clauses" : alterable only by 
imperial parliament; while the constitution 
proper (the 128 sections of clause 9) are 
alterable by the Commonwealth (Moore, 
62fif.). 



120 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

1) The term "commonwealth"; meaning; am- 

biguities; why adopted? 

2) The term "state" ; meaning ; ambiguities. 

G. Supremacy of the federal constitution and federal 
laws, the laws of any state "notwithstanding" 
(clause 51; compare original form of article 6, 
Const, of U. S. (Quick and Garran, 346; Moore, 
81, note). 

d. The term "constitution" ; relation to constitutional 
law; to custom or the unwritten constitution 
(Moore, 78 ff.) ; legislative powers of a colony 
and of the commonwealth compared (Moore, 78- 
81; Quick and Garran, 314). 

2. Chapter I. The Parliament (sees. 1-60). 

a. Part I. General (sees. 1-6). 

h. Part II. The Senate (sees. 7-23). 

c. Part III. House of Eepresentatives (sees. 24-40). 

d. Part IV. Both Houses (sees. 41-50). 

e. Part V. Power of the Parliament (sees. 51-60). 

3. Chapter II. The Executive Government (61-70). 

4. Chap. III. The Judicature (sees. 71-80). 

5. Chap. IV. Finance and Trade (Sees. 81-105). 

6. Chap. V. The States (sees. 106-20). 

7. Chap. VI. New States (sees. 121-124). 

8. Chap. VII. Miscellaneous (sees. 125-127). 

9. Chap. VIII. Alternation of the Constitution (sec. 

128). 

TEXT OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

Moore, 333-361; Quick and Garran, 262-278 (the clauses are also 
successively repeated in tlie discussion throughout the treatise). 

Section XLVIII. The Parliament op the Commonwealth. 

A. The King: Represented 'by the Governor-General Ap- 
pointed hy the King (sees. 1-6). 

I. Parliamentary Powers of the Governor- General (Quick and 
Garran, 404-5). 

II. Salary : 10,000 pounds. 

B. The Senate i&ecs. 7-23) . 
I. Composition. 

1. An equal number from each original state directly 



AUSTRALIA. 121 

chosen by the people; voting as one electorate until 
parliament otherwise provides. 

2. Now 6 senators from each state; but parliament may 

increase or diminish the number. 

3. Vacancies, how filled. 

a. Temporarily by legislature, or by governor with 

advice of the executive council. 
&. Permanently by election. 

II. Tenure. 

1. Six yeai's; but parliament may be earlier dissolved in 

case of deadlock. 

2. The original division of the senators of each state into 

two classes, to hold 3 and 6 years respectively. 

3. Vacancy: for absence two consecutive months without 

permission; by resignation. 

III. Qualifications of Senators : The Same as for Members of 
the House. 

IV. Qualifications of Electors of Senators. 

1. The same as fixed by the constitution or by the federal 

parliament for members of the house. 

2. At present, therefore, the qualifications are those of 

lower house of the state legislature; but parliament 
may alter. 

V. Choice of Senators. 

1. Parliament may establish a uniform method. 

2. Temporarily the laws of the states relating to choice 

of members of the lower house of legislature to pre- 
vail. 

3. State may make laws regarding mode of election, sub- 

ject to the general federal acts. 

VI. Senate May Elect a Member to be President of the Body. 

1. Vacancy of presidential office by resignation; when 

holder ceases to be a senator; when removed by vote. 

2. Place, how supplied? 

VII. Quorum, One-third of Whole Number; but parliament 
may determine; questions determined by majority vote, 
each senator having one vote ; and the president may vote on 
all questions; a tie counts as a negative. 

VIII. Powers of the Senate. 

1. In what functions they are coordinate with those of the 
house? 



122 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

2. Restrictions as to money bills. 

3. Relative strength and dignity of the senate as com- 

pared with those of other federal systems. 

G. House of Representatives (sees. 24-40). 
See Quick and GarraH, 265-7, 445-83; Moore, 101-113. 

I. Composition. 

1. Members "directly chosen by the people of the com- 

wealth/' the number as '^nearly as practicable" 

to be twice that of the senators. 
a. Significance of the two clauses quoted; compare 

the U. S. constitutional provisions. 
Z). Number of representatives for several states to be 

in proportion to the population; but each shall 

have at least 5 members. 

c. How the number is determined ; the "quota" (Quick 

and Garran, 265, 453-55). 

d. Parliament ''under the constitution" has power to 

alter the number (sec. 27). 

2. When enumeration of persons of a state to be dimin- 

ished for disqualifying "all persons of any race" (sec. 
25). 

II. Tenure. 

1. Every house continues 3 years; but may be sooner dis- 

solved by governor-general (sec. 28). 

2. Vacancy. 

a. By written resignation. 

t. For absence 2 consecutive months of a session; 

vacancy filled by election under a new writ (sec. 

33). 

III. Qualifications of Representatives Until Parliament Other- 
wise Provides (sec. 34). 

1. Full age of 21 years. 

2. Qualified to vote for a representative, or to become 

such. 

3. Resident of commonwealth 3 years. 

4. Natural born or for five years a naturalized subject 

of the king; the four ways of being naturalized (sec. 
34, part II) . 

IV. Qualifications of Electors of Representatives: until par- 
liament otherwise provides the same as for electors of mem- 



AUSTRALIA. 123 

bers of more numerous house of state legislature (sec. 30) ; 
but each has but one vote; by federal statute women in all 
states have the franchise. 

V. Elections. 

1. Until parliament otherwise provides state laws to 

determine the method (sec. 31). 

2. Electoral districts (sec. 28). 

3. Writs; vacancies, how filled (sees. 32-33). 

VI. Speaker, 

1. Elected by the house. 

2. Vacancy: by resignation, removal, or ceasing to be a 

member; place, how filled? 

VII. Quorum, One-third of the Whole Number; but parlia- 
ment may detemine; questions decided by majority vote, 
the speaker voting only in case of tie (sees. 39-40). 

D. Both Houses (sees. 41-50). 
See Quick and Garran, 267-68, 483-508; Moore, 113 fC. 

I. Provision to Preserve the Franchise of Women (sec. 41) ; 
everywhere women now vote by federal law; and by state 
law in all states except Victoria. 

II. Disqualifications. 

1. Enumeration (sees. 43-44). 

2. Exceptions: king's ministers and others. 

3. Vacancies for disqualification. 

4. Penalty for sitting when not qualified (sec. 46). 

5. Questions regarding disqualification and disputed elec- 

tions, how determined (sec. 47). 

III. Salary, 400 pounds; the rule in the several states (Moore, 
113). 

IV. Privileges (sec. 49) ; common law doctrine not admitted 
(Moore, 114). 

V. Procedure (sec. 50). 

E. Legislative Poivers of Parliament (sees. 51-60). 

See Quick and Garran, 268-70, 483-698; Moore, 117-164, Compare 
U. S. Constitution, art. I, sec. 8; Canadian Constitution, sec. 91. 

I. Provision as to the Residuum of Powers (see chap. v. of con- 
stitution). 



124 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

II. The 39 Enumerated General Powers (see. 51) ; these are 
"plenary" (Quick and Garran, 509-10). 

1. Analysis (Quick and Garran, 509). 

a. New and original powers. 

6. Old powers previously exercised by the colonies. 

1) Some "exclusively" vested in the federal par- 

liament. 

2) Some "concurrently" vested in the federal and 

state parliaments: the rule of construction 
(Story, Commentaries, sec. 438). 

2. General interpretation of the more important of these 

powers. 

III. The Exclusive Powers (sec. 52). 

IV. Laws Regarding Money, Revenue, Taxation: Relative 
Powers of the Houses (sees. 53-56) ; Importance of Gover- 
nor-General's Recommendation (sec. 56). 

V. Deadlocks (sec. 57). 

VI. Assent, Veto, Reserved Bills. 



Section XLIX. The Executive (sees. 61-70). 
See Quick and Garran, 271, 699-718; Moore, 224-31. 

I. The King ; Represented by the Governor-General Appointed 
by the King; Power Extending to the Execution and Main- 
tenance of the Federal Constitution and Laws (sec. 61). 

II. The Governor-General (see Quick and Garran, 404-406). 

1. Share in legislation (assent, veto, reserve). 

2. Appoints executive councillors, ministers, and other 

executive officers. 

3. Commander-in-chief of army and navy (sec. 68). 

III. The Federal Executive Council, to Advise the Governor- 
General; Chosen and Appointed by the Governor-Generai 
and Holding During His Pleasure; When the Governor- 
General Acts "in Council" (Moore, 224-25). 

IV. The "King's Ministers of State for the Commonwealth" 
(Quick and Garran, 709-11). 

1. They are members of the executive council appointed 

during pleasure of the governor-general. 

2. After three months, a minister must be a member of 



AUSTRALIA. 



125 



parliament (indirect provision for responsible cabinet 
government) . 

3. Until parliament otherwise provides, the number not to 

exceed seven. 

4. Salaries (sec. 66). 

5. Comparison with the colonial (state) cabinets and 

ministries (Moore, 227-29). 

6. Governor-General Hopetoun's first cabinet (Moore, 230- 

31). 
v. Other Provisions. 

1. Appointment and removal of all other executive officers 

(sec 67). 

2. Transfer to the commonwealth of colonial departments 

and executive powers (sees. 69-70). 

Section L. Judicature, Finance, Miscellaneous. 
A. Federal Judicature i^ecB. 71-80) . 
See Quick and Garran, 272-73, 719-810; Moore, 232-81. 

I. Courts (sec. 71). 

1. Supreme court called high court of Australia; consist- 

ing of a chief justice and not less than two other 
justices as parliament determines. 

2. Other courts to be created by parliament. 

3. Comets (state) invested with federal jurisdiction by 

parliament: unique provision. 

II. Justices of the First Two Classes of Courts (sec. 72). 

1. Appointed by the governor-general in council. 

2. May be removed in same way on address from both 

houses. 

3. Salary to be fixed by parliament. 

III. Jurisdiction of the High Court (sees. 73-80). 

1. Appellate jurisdiction from all judgments, decrees, 
orders, and sentences, subject to exceptions and 
regulations prescribed by parliament, of 
a. Any justice or justices exercising the original 

jurisdiction of the high court. 
6. Other federal courts or court exercising federal 
jurisdiction. 



126 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

c. Supreme court of any state in all questions. 

d. Interstate commission as to questions of law only 

(for examples of questions of law and fact, see 
Quick and Garran, 743-46). 

e. The constitutional function of federal courts 

(Moore, 232 ff.). 

2. Original jurisdiction (sees. 75-76) : meaning of 

"original" (Quick and Garran, 784-88) : question 

of concurrent jurisdiction. 
a. In 5 classes of cases enumerated in the constitution 

(sec. 75). 
6. In 4 classes of cases as parliament determines. 

3. Trial of offenses by jury (sec. 80) : when trial takes 

place ? 
IV. Miscellaneous. 

1. Jurisdiction of the high court in cases when appeal 

was formerly allowed from the supreme 'court of a 
state to the king in council. 

2. When appeal from the high court to the king in council. 

a. When on certificate of the high court. 

6. When on leave granted by the king by virtue of 
the prerogative; parliament may limit the mat- 
ters to which such leave applies. 

3. Limitation of the original federal jurisdiction by par- 

liament (sec. 77). 

4. Parliament may confer rights to proceed against a 

state or the commonwealth (sec. 78). 

B. Finance and Trade (sees. 81-105). 

I. Consolidated Eevenue Fund; Expenditures Charged There- 
on; Appropriations (sees. 81-83). 

II. Transfer of Offices and Property from States to Common- 
wealth (sees. 84-85). 

III. Control of Customs, Excises, and Bounties Passes to 
Federal Executive (sec. 86). 

IV. Reservation of Share of Net Revenue from Customs and 
Excise for States for Payment of Interest of State Debts 
Taken Over by the Commonwealth (sec. 87). 

V. Uniform Duties; Ftee Trade between States; Temporary 
Provisions (sees. 88-95). 



AUSTRALIA. 127 

VI. Financial Aid to Any State (sec. 96) ; No Preference to 
Any State (99). 

VII. Parliament Must Establish an Interstate Commission 
(sec. 101). 

1. Preference as to railways by any state regulated ; duty 

of commission (sec. 102). 

2. Composition of interstate commission (sec. 103). 

3. Saving of certain railway rates necessary for develop- 

ment of the territory of any state (sec. 104). 

VIII. Taking Over Debts of the States (sec. 105) : the Strug- 
gle for Funding in the First Parliament (see Lusk, in Rev- 
of Rev. (1903) , XXVII, 333 fif.) . 

C. The States (sees. 106-120; Quick and Garran, 276-77, 927-66; Moore, 

282-309): Preservation of existing laws and constitutions; con- 
flict of state and federal laws; powers forbidden, etc. 

D. New States: Government and acquisition of territories; alteration 

of state limits (sees. 121-24; Quick and Garran, 277, 967-77; 
Moore, 310-15). 

E. Miscellaneous: Seat of government; aborigines not counted; gov- 

ernor's deputy (sees. 125-27; Quick and Garran, 277-78, 978-84). 

F. Amendments (see. 128; Quick and Garran, 278, 985-95; Moore, 316- 

23). 



CHAPTER VI. 

SELECT REFERENCES FOR GERMAN AND LATIN FEDERAL 

INSTITUTIONS. 



Section LI. Literature Available for Study of the Fed- 
eral Constitution of the German Empire. 

I. BibliograpMes. 

Hart (A. B.), Federal Government (1891), 68-76, 187-188. 
Levermore (C. H.) and Dewey (D. R.), Political History Since 

1815 (1889), 72-81. 
Iflew International Encyclopaedia, VIII, 448-49. References in the 

works of Arndt, Howard, Lowell, Schulze, Dareste, I, 159-160; 

Lalor, II, 367; and in other treatises. See also the Special 

Card Catalogue of the Department of Political Science and 

Sociology. 

II. Geography. 

Ausant, Atlas Historigue. 

Berghaus, Deutschland Seit Hundert Jahren (1859-6^). 

Century Atlas. 

Droysen, Atlas, Plates 22, 26, 31, 34, 38, 42, 46, 49, 50, 51, 59. 

Freeman, Historical Geography, I, chap, viii, sec. 2, II, maps xxii- 

xxxiii, passim. 
Hertslet, Map of Europe l)y Treaty. 
Rhode, Historishcher Schul-Atlas, Plates xi, xvii. 
Standard atlases and encyclopaedias. 

III. German Federations, 1806-1870 : Confederation of the 
Rhine, 1806-13; German Federation, 1815-66; Zollverein, 
1834-71; North German Federation, 1866-1870. 

Baring-Gould (S.), Germany Present and Past (2 vols., 1879). 
Behr, Systematische Darstellung des rheinischen Bundes (1808). 
Binding (K.), Die Grundung des Norddeutschen Bundes (1889). 
Bismarck (Otto von), Gedanken und Erinnerungen (2 vols., 1898); 

Eng. translation by A. J. Butler (1899). 
Bryce (J.), Holy Roman Empire (new ed., 1904). 
Duff (G.), Studies in European Politics. 
Dyer (T. H.), Modern Europe (1861-64). 
Falke, Geschichte des deutschen Zollvereins (1869). 
Fyffe (C. A.), Modern Europe (2d American ed., 2 vols., 1887-90). 
Hahn, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Frankreich (1871). 
Hahn, Zwei Jahre preussisch-deutscher Pontile, 1866-1867 (1868). 

(128) 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 129 

Hiersemenzel (C), Das Terfassungs- und Verwaltungsrecht des 
Norddeutschen Bundes und des deutschen Zoll- und Handels- 
verein (2 vols., 1868-70). 

Hiersemenzel (C), Die Verfassung des Norddeutschen Bundes 
(1867). 

Hudson (R.), "The German Federation," in Political Science Quar- 
terly (1891), VI, 424-38. 

Kaltenborn (C. von), Geschichte der deutschen Bundesverhdltnisse 
und Einheitshestrehungen von 1806 his 1856 (2 vols., 1857). 

Kloeppel (P.), Dreissig Jahre deutscher Verfassungsgeschichte. 
1867-1897 (1900). 

Kliiber (J. L.), Akten des Wiener Kongresses (8 vols., 1816). 

Kliiber (J. L.), Staatsrecht des Rheinbundes (1808). 

Kliippel (K.), Geschichte der deutschen Einheitsbestrebungen bis 

zu ihrer Erfilllung, 18^8-1871 (2 vols., 1872). 
Malet, Overthrow of the German Confederation (1870). 
Meyer (G.), Grundzuge des Norddeutschen Bundesrechts (1868). 
Miiller (W.), Political History of Recent Times, 1816-1875 (1882). 
Miinster, Der Norddeutsche Bund und dessen Uebergang (1868). 
Nicolson, Sketch of the German Constitution and of the Events 

in Germany from 1815 to 1871 (1875). 
Packisch, Geschichte des Zollvereins (1869). 
Thudichum, Verfassungsrecht des Norddeutschen Bundes und des 

deutschen Zollvereins (1870). 

Treitschke (H. von), Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehnten Jahr- 
hundert (1870-85). 

Waltz (G.), Grundzuge der Politik (1862). 

Zalke (J.), Geschichte des deutschen Zollvereins (1869). 

IV. Constitution of the Empire. 

Aegide and Klauhold, Das Staatsarchiv (1866 seq.). 

Archiv fiir das offentliche Recht (1886 seq.). 

Arndt (A.), Das Staatsrecht des Deutschen Reiches (1901). An 

excellent analytical treatise on the constitution and law, with 

citation of the sources and the literature. 
Arndt (A.), Verfassung des Deutschen Reichs, Mit Einleitung und 

Kommentar (2d ed., 1902). 

Arndt (A.), Des Terordnungsrecht des Deutschen Reiches. 

Auerbach, Reich und Verfassung (1871). 

Binding (K.), Die rechtliche Stellung des Kaisers im heutigen 

Deutschen Reiche (1898). 
Bornhak (C), Grundriss des deutschen Staatsrecht (1907). 
Burgess (J. W.), Political Science and Constitutional Law (2 vols., 

1890). 

Burgess (J. W.), "Tenure and Powers of the German Emperor," 
in Political Science Quarterly (1888), III, 334-84. 

Buy (Jean du). Two Aspects of the German Constitution (New 
Haven, 1894). 

Dareste de la ChavaHne (F. R. and P.), Les Constitutions Modernes 
(2 vols., 1883). 

9 



130 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Demombynes (G.), Constitutions Europeennes (2 vols., 1883). 
Fischer, Das Recht des Deutschen Kaisers (1895). 
Garner (J. W.), "The German Judiciary," in Political Science 
Quarterly, xvii (1902), 490-552, XVIII (1903), 512-64. 

Gerber (P.), La Condition de V Alsace Lorraine dans V Empire Al- 

lemand (1906). 
Goodnow (F. J.), Comparative Administrative Law (2 vols., 1893). 
Hanel (A.), Staatsrecht (1892). 

Hanel (A.), Studien zum deutschen Staatsrecht (1873-80). 
Hauser, Verfassung (1871). 
Held, Verfassung (1872). 

Held, Das Kaiserthum als Rechtsbegrift (1879). 
Hensel, Die Stellung des Reichskanzlers. 
Hirth, Annalen des Deutschen Reiches (1868 seq.). 
Howard (Burt Estes), The German Empire (1906). Best treatise 

in English; an excellent guide for university study; contains 

classified lists of authorities in foot-notes. 
Howard (Burt Estes), "Alsace Lorraine," in Pol. Sc. Quarterly 

(1906), XXI, 447-74. 
Kloeppel (P.), See above, division III. 
Laband (P.), Das deutsche Kaiserthum (1896). 
Laband (P.), Die Wandlungen der deutschen Reichsverfassung 

(1895). 
Laband (P.), Das Staatsrecht des Deutschen Reiches (4th ed., 4 

vols., 1901). 
Leidig (E.), Preussisches Staatsrecht (1891). 
Lorenz (O.), Kaiser Wilhelm und die Begriindung des Reichs, 

1866-1871 (1902). 
Lowell (A. L.), Governments and Parties in Continental Europe 

(2 vols., 1896), I, 232-85, II, 1-69. A scholarly discussion; 

useful as preparation for more detailed study. 
Mejer (O.), Einleitung in das deutsche Staatsrecht (2d ed., 1884). 
Meyer (G.), Staatsrecht (1878). 

Meyer (G.), Lehrhuch des deutschen Staatsrechtes (5th ed., 1899). 
Mohl, Reichsstaatsrecht (1873). 
Robinson (J. H.), "The German Bundesrath," in Pub. University 

of Pa., Pub. Law Series, III, No. 1. A very important mono- 
graph. 

Ronne, Staatsrecht (1876-77). 

Rontie, Verfassungsrecht (1882). 

Schulze (H. J. F.), Lehrbuch des deutschen Staatsrechtes (1881, 

1886). One of the best treatises; literature is cited. 
Seydel (M.), Commentar zur Verfassungsurkunde fur das Deutsche 

Reich (2d ed., 1897). 
Sybel (H. von), Die Begrundung des Deutschen Reiches durch 

Wilhelm I. (7 vols., 1892-1899). 
Sybel (H. von), English translation of the first edition by Perrin 

(1890-97). 



LATIN REPUBLICS. 131 

Treitschke (H. von), Historische und politische Aufsdtze (3 vols., 
1871). 

Zorn (P.), Das Staatsrecht des Deutschen Reiches (2 vols., 2d ed., 
1895). 

Short Accounts: Burgess, in Political Science Quarterly, III (Mar., 
1888), 123-135; Howard (Burt Estes), "Trial by Jury in Ger- 
many," in Pol. Sc. Quart., XIX (1904), 650-72; Geffcken, in 
Contemporary Review, XLIX (Feb., 1886), 280-94, L (Aug., 
1886), 277-94, LI (April, 1887), 586-601, LII (Dec, 1887), 880- 
94) ; Schulte, Lehrbuch, I, sees. 76-79; Woolsey, Political Science, 
II, 204-208; Calvo, sees. 51, 72; Wheaton, Commentaries; 
Bryce, Holy Roman Empire (new ed., 1904), 447-505; Hudson, 
"The Grerman Empire," in Pol. Sc. Quart., X, 656-63; Tuttle, 
in Harper's, LXIII (Sept., 1881), 691; Wilson, The State 
(rev. ed., 1903), 253 ff.; Crane and Moses, Politics, Index at 
"German Empire"; Macvane's Seignobos, Political History of 
Europe Since I8I4, 456-517; Arndt, Yerfassung, 28 ff.; Zorn, 
"Constitutional Position of the Germati Emperor," in Annals 
of Am. Academy (1899), XIV, 73-93. 

Text of the Constitution: Burgess, Political Science and Constitu- 
tional Law, I, 285-312; Howard, German Empire, 403-35; 
Lowell, Governments and Parties, II, 355-77; James, in Pub. 
Uni. of Pa., Polit. Econ. and Pub. Law Series, No. 7 (1890); 
Arndt, Yerfassung des Deutschen Reichs, 1-27; New York 
Convention Manual, Part II, vol. Ill, 257-86; and the refer- 
ences in Hart, 74. 



Section LII. Literature Available for the Study op the 
Federal Constitutions- op Mexico and Argentina. 

I. United States of Mexico. 

1. Bibliographies. 

Hart (A. B.), Federal Government, 81. 

Neiv Iternational Encyclopaedia, XIII, 416-17. 

Bancroft (H. H.), Mexico (6 vols.), see list of authorities in 

each volume. 
Winsor (J), Narrative and Critical History, VIII, 266 ff. 
Foster (W. E.), Reference Lists, No. 90. 
Clarke (R.), Bibliotheca Americana, 232-34. 

2. Geograph}'. 
See Hart, 81. 

3. Text of the constitution. 

Abbott (G. D.), Mexico and the United States, 283-309. 

British and Foreign State Papers, XIII, 695, 704, XXV, 683, 
XLVII, 472. 

Dareste, Constitutions Modernes, II, 475-507; New York Con- 
vention Manual, Part II, vol. Ill, 319-56. 

Moses, in Annals of Am. Academy (1891), II, 1-47. 



132 FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 

4. Constitution and history. 

Abbott (G. D.), Mexico and the United States (1869). 

Bancroft (H. H.), History of Mexico (1885-1888), V, VI. 

Baticroft (H. H.), Popular History of the Mexican People 
(1887). 

Bastian, in Sammlung wissenschaftUcher Yortrdge (1869). 
Ill, 463-502. 

Castro, Republic of Mexico in 1882 (1882). 

Conckling (H.), Mexico and the Mexicans (1882). 

Cubas (G.), Republic of Mexico (1876). 

Dunn, Mexico and Her Resources (1889). 

Hale, The Story of Mexico (1891). 

Lester, The Mexican Republic (1878). 

Mayer, Mexico (1853). 

Nail (A. H.), Short History of Mexico (1890). 

Richthofen, Aeusseren und inneren Zustdnde der Republik 
von Mexico (1859). 

Salinas (D.), The Riches of Mexico and Its Institutions (1893). 

Van Bruyssel, Les ^tats-TJnis Mexicains (1880). 

Wells, Study of Mexico (1887). 

Short Accounts: New International Encyclopaedia, XIII, 411- 
13; Lalor, II, 833-37; Morgan, in N. A. Review (1883), 
CXXXVI, 409-19; Dareste, II, 475-77; Statesman's Year 
Book. See Poole's Index; and the Special Card Cat- 
alogue. 

II. Argentine Republic. 

1. Bibliographies. 
Dareste, II, 525. 

Hart (A. B.), Federal Government, 84. 
Lalor, Cyclopaedia, I, 118. 
New International Encyclopaedia, I, 782. 

Special Card Catalogue of the Department of Political Science 
and Sociology. 

2. Geography. 

See the standard wall-maps, atlases^ and encyclopaedias. 

3. Text of the constitution. 

British and Foreign State Papers, XIV, 942, XLII, 779, LII, 

1066. 
Dareste, II, 527-52; New York Convention Manual, Part II, 

vol. Ill, 3-28. 

4. Constitution and history. 

Akers (C. E.), History of South America (1905). 
Alberdi, Organizacion che la Confederacion (1858). 
Butterworth (H.), South America (2 vols., 1898). 
Carpenter (F. G.), South America (1903). 



LATIN REPUBLICS. 133 

Child, Spanish-American Republics (1891). 

Clemens, La Plata Country (1866). 

Dawson (T. C), The South American Republics (2 vols., 
1903). 

Deberle (A.), Histoire de VAmerigue du Sud (3d ed., 1897). 

Greger, Die Republik Argentina (1883). 

Guilalne, La Republique Argentine (1889). 

King, Twenty-Four Years in the Argentine Republic (1846). 

Mulhall, Handbook of the River Plate Republics (1893). 

Napp, Argentine Republic (1876). 

Paxson (P. L.), Independence of the South American Re- 
publics (1903). 

Seeber (F.), Great Argentina (1904). 

Turner, Argentina and the Argentines (1892). 

Van Bruyssel, La Republique Argentine (1888). 

Short Accounts: Gallenga, South America (1881), chaps., xiii- 
XV ; Dareste, II, 525-526; Lalor, I, 114-118; Calvo, sec. 59; 
Daireaux, in Revue des Deux Mondes, 3d ser., XI (1875), 
877-90; New International Encyclopaedia, I, 779 ff. See 
Poole's Index and the Special Card Catalogue. 



LE My '09 



THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA 

DEPARTMENT OF 

POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGY 



COMPARATIVE FEDERAL 
INSTITUTIONS 

An Analytical Reference Syllabus 



BY 



GEORGE ELLIOTT HOWARD, Ph. D. 

Head Professor of Political Science and Sociology 



PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 
1907 



